Fast food

Fast Food Pattern and Cardiometabolic Disorders: A Review of Current Studies

Type of study: systematic review

Number of citations: 139

Year: 2016

Authors: Z. Bahadoran, P. Mirmiran, F. Azizi

Journal: Health Promotion Perspectives

Journal ranking: Q1

Key takeaways: Frequent fast food consumption increases the risk of obesity, metabolic syndrome, and cardiovascular disease, highlighting the need to address this issue.

Abstract: Background: There are growing concern globally regarding the alarming trend of fast food consumption and its related cardiometabolic outcomes including overweight and obesity. This study aimed to review the current evidences available in relation to adverse effects of fast food pattern on cardiometabolic risk factors. Methods: Relevant articles including epidemiological and clinical studies with appropriate design and good quality were obtained through searches of the Medline, PubMed, Scopus databases and Google scholar with related key words including 'fast foods', 'processed foods', 'obesity', 'overweight', 'insulin resistance', 'diabetes', 'cardiovascular disease', 'metabolic syndrome', 'dyslipidemia' and 'hypertension'. Results: Fast food consumption and out-of-home eating behavior is a main risk factor for lower diet quality, higher calorie and fat intake and lower micronutrients density of diet. Frequent consumption of fast foods was accompanied with overweight and abdominal fat gain, impaired insulin and glucose homeostasis, lipid and lipoprotein disorders, induction of systemic inflammation and oxidative stress. Higher fast food consumption also increases the risk of developmental diabetes, metabolic syndrome and cardiovascular disease. Conclusion: This review provides further evidence warning us against the irreparable effects of fast food consumption on public health especially the increasing global burden of obesity and cardiovascular diseases.

Acute effects of various fast-food meals on vascular function and cardiovascular disease risk markers: the Hamburg Burger Trial.

Type of study: non-rct experimental

Number of citations: 69

Year: 2007

Authors: T. Rudolph, K. Ruempler, E. Schwedhelm, Jing Tan-Andresen, Ulrich Riederer, R. Böger, R. Maas

Journal: The American journal of clinical nutrition

Journal ranking: Q1

Key takeaways: A conventional beef burger meal and presumably healthier alternatives with or without vitamin-rich side orders did not significantly differ in their acute effects on vascular reactivity.

Abstract: BACKGROUND High-fat meals have negative effects on endothelial function, but vitamin-rich side orders may prevent these negative effects. OBJECTIVE The acute effects of conventional and alternative fast-food meals on vascular function and various cardiovascular biomarkers were investigated. DESIGN In a crossover study, flow-mediated endothelium-dependent dilatation (FMD) and cardiovascular disease risk markers were investigated in 24 healthy volunteers before and 2 and 4 h after 3 fast-food meals: a conventional beef burger with French fries, ketchup, and carbonated lemon-flavored soda (meal 1); a vegetarian burger with French fries, ketchup, and carbonated lemon-flavored soda (meal 2); and a vegetarian burger with salad, fruit, yogurt, and orange juice (meal 3). RESULTS FMD decreased after all 3 fast-food meals: the values were 9.7 +/- 2.5%, 7.5 +/- 3.5%, and 6.2 +/- 3.3% for meal 1; 9.2 +/- 3.4%, 7.1 +/- 3.4%, and 6.3 +/- 4.0% for meal 2; and 8.8 +/- 3.3%, 6.2 +/- 4.0%, and 6.8 +/- 4.3% for meal 3 at baseline, 2 h, and 4 h, respectively. There were significant intraindividual differences for time (P < 0.001) but not for type of meal (P = 0.677). A postprandial increase in baseline diameter of the brachial artery was significant for time (P < 0.001) but not for type of meal (P = 0.148). CONCLUSIONS Against common expectations, a conventional beef burger meal and presumably healthier alternatives with or without vitamin-rich side orders did not differ significantly in their acute effects on vascular reactivity. The frequently reported postprandial decline in FMD may be attributed in part to a postprandial increase in baseline arterial diameter.

Fast food consumption and its associations with heart rate, blood pressure, cognitive function and quality of life. Pilot study

Type of study: non-rct observational study

Number of citations: 30

Year: 2019

Authors: Mohammad Alsabieh, Mohammad Alqahtani, Abdulaziz Altamimi, Abdullah Albasha, Alwaleed M. Alsulaiman, Abdullah Alkhamshi, S. Habib, S. Bashir

Journal: Heliyon

Journal ranking: Q1

Key takeaways: Fast food consumption has a positive effect on blood pressure but has no direct effect on cognition or quality of life in adults aged 18-25 years.

Fast Food and Chronic Disease: Exploring the Link Between Dietary Habits and Public Health Challenges

Type of study: systematic review

Number of citations: 0

Year: 2023

Authors: Ayu Lestari

Journal: Journal of Health Literacy and Qualitative Research

Journal ranking: brak

Key takeaways: Regular fast food consumption increases the risk of chronic diseases, with dietary habits influenced by food marketing, policy environments, and socioeconomic factors.

Abstract: Fast food consumption has surged globally, raising critical concerns for public health. This systematic review analyzes the relationship between fast food intake and its metabolic and cardiovascular impacts particularly on obesity, insulin resistance, type 2 diabetes, and hypertension. Evidence from the past two decades shows a consistent link between regular fast food consumption and increased risk of chronic diseases, driven by its high calorie, low nutrient composition and its contribution to inflammation and weight gain. These effects are exacerbated among low income populations and in urban environments. Importantly, this study highlights the influence of food marketing, policy environments, and socioeconomic factors in shaping dietary behaviors. Countries with comprehensive nutrition regulations such as taxation on unhealthy food and advertising restrictions report lower dependence on fast food and improved public health outcomes. Thus, this review emphasizes the urgent need for multi sectoral policy interventions to reduce fast food consumption and its health consequences. The findings contribute to public health discourse by offering evidence based insights for formulating targeted nutritional policies, promoting dietary education, and addressing socioeconomic disparities in access to healthy foods.

Impact of Fasting Mimicking Diet (FMD) on cardiovascular risk factors: a systematic review and meta-analysis of randomized control trials

Type of study: meta-analysis

Number of citations: 0

Year: 2025

Authors: M. Mohammadzadeh, Mahdi Amirpour, Hamid Ahmadirad, Fatemeh Abdi, S. Khalesi, Niayesh Naghshi, A. Bahrami, E. Hejazi

Journal: Diabetology & Metabolic Syndrome

Journal ranking: Q1

Key takeaways: The Fasting Mimicking Diet (FMD) significantly reduces HbA1c, IGF-1, systolic blood pressure, and diastolic blood pressure levels, but does not significantly affect other cardiovascular risk factors.

Abstract: The Fasting Mimicking Diet (FMD) has gained significant attention as a potential intervention for reducing cardiovascular risk factors. While studies have investigated its effectiveness, findings have been inconsistent. Therefore, this systematic review and meta-analysis aimed to clarify evidence on the impact of FMD on cardiovascular risk factors. PubMed, Web of Science, Scopus, and Google Scholar were searched for eligible Randomized controlled trials (RCTs) published up to July 2024. Weighted mean differences (WMD) were calculated for the net changes in risk factors using random-effects models. Eleven RCTs (with twelve treatment arms) were included. FMD significantly reduced glycated hemoglobin (HbA1c) (WMD = -8.589 mmol/mol, 95% CI: -12.389, -4.769), insulin-like growth factor 1 (IGF-1) (WMD= -19.211 ng/ml, 95% CI: -32.986, -5.437), systolic blood pressure (SBP) (WMD = -4.148 mmHg, 95% CI: -7.584, -0.711), and diastolic blood pressure (DBP) (WMD = -2.263 mmHg, 95% CI: -4.162, -0.364) levels. No significant effects were observed on other cardiovascular risk factors. This meta-analysis suggests that FMD can significantly reduce HbA1c, IGF-1, SBP, and DBP levels. Further research is warranted to investigate the long-term and potential clinical implications of FMD on cardiovascular health. The protocol of the study was registered in the International Prospective Register of Systematic Reviews (PROSPERO registration no: CRD42024569426).

Fast food consumption has a great impact on the aging process — A review

Type of study: literature review

Number of citations: 0

Year: 2025

Authors: F. H. Awlqadr, A. Altemimi, S. Qadir, Z. Alkanan, A. M. Faraj, Q. AlKaisy, T. Abedelmaksoud

Journal: Theory and practice of meat processing

Journal ranking: Q4

Key takeaways: Fast food consumption contributes to premature aging by fostering chronic inflammation, metabolic disorders, and oxidative stress, highlighting the need for public health interventions to promote healthier dietary patterns.

Abstract: This review examines the impact of fast food consumption on health and its role in the development of chronic diseases that accelerate the aging process. A comprehensive literature review was conducted to explore the relationship between fast food intake and the onset of cardiovascular diseases, diabetes, cancer, and obesity, all of which are associated with premature aging. The findings indicate that fast foods high in fat and sugar contribute to chronic inflammation — a phenomenon referred to as “inflammageing”, which damages the vascular system and heightens the risk of cardiovascular diseases, including atherosclerosis and heart failure. Additionally, metabolic disorders such as insulin resistance and dyslipidemia disrupt glucose homeostasis, further exacerbating chronic inflammation and promoting accelerated aging. Moreover, fast food consumption is linked to an increased risk of cancer, largely due to the presence of carcinogenic compounds in processed meats and the obesity epidemic, which amplifies aging through mechanisms involving chronic inflammation, oxidative stress, and hormonal imbalances. Collectively, these factors impair immune function and elevate the risk of neurodegenerative diseases. Consequently, fast food consumption significantly contributes to premature aging by fostering chronic inflammation, metabolic disorders, and oxidative stress. Urgent public health interventions are necessary to mitigate these adverse effects and promote healthier dietary patterns, to enhance quality of life and longevity.

The Effect of Fasting on Cardiovascular Diseases: A Systematic Review

Type of study: systematic review

Number of citations: 2

Year: 2024

Authors: K. T. Hailu, Korlos Salib, Sanath Savithri Nandeesha, Alousious Kasagga, Chnoor Hawrami, Erica Ricci, Pousette Hamid

Journal: Cureus

Journal ranking: brak

Key takeaways: Fasting can lower cardiovascular risk, especially when combined with regular exercise.

Abstract: Among the leading causes of morbidity, disability, and death worldwide are cardiovascular diseases (CVDs). Their risk factors usually include a variety of factors associated with cardiometabolic disorders. Many public health organizations prioritize the prevention of CVDs and encourage people to maintain a healthy lifestyle. It has been shown that fasting and a healthy diet can promote weight loss and improve cardiometabolic health in various animal species. We want to know the impact of fasting on CVDs. The topic is examined in this systematic review. We looked through a wide range of online sources, including PubMed, Cochrane Library, and Google Scholar, to find randomized controlled trials (RCTs) that looked into the connection between CVDs and fasting. We included human research that has been published in English in peer-reviewed publications in the last five years, and then we screened by the title, abstract, and full-text accessibility. We picked the final 10 articles for quality assessment using Cochrane Collaboration's tool for risk-of-bias assessment of RCTs. The findings suggest that fasting is beneficial in lowering the cardiovascular risk of a population. This result holds for all types of fasting used as an intervention in the clinical trials we reviewed. The result is pronounced when fasting regimens are combined with a regular exercise routine. More comprehensive data will come from larger-scale clinical trials and case-control studies, and a thorough examination of all the potential health impacts of fasting is warranted.

Intermittent Fasting in Cardiovascular Disorders—An Overview

Type of study:

Number of citations: 214

Year: 2019

Authors: Bartosz Malinowski, Klaudia Zalewska, Anna Węsierska, Maya M. Sokołowska, Maciej W. Socha, G. Liczner, K. Pawlak-Osińska, Michał Wiciński

Journal: Nutrients

Journal ranking: Q1

Key takeaways: Intermittent fasting shows potential in weight loss, reducing inflammation, and improving cardiovascular health, including atherosclerosis progression, diabetes mellitus type 2, and blood pressure reduction.

Abstract: Intermittent fasting is a form of time restricted eating (typically 16 h fasting and 8 h eating), which has gained popularity in recent years and shows promise as a possible new paradigm in the approach to weight loss and the reduction of inflammation, and has many potential long term health benefits. In this review, the authors will incorporate many aspects of fasting, mainly focusing on its effects on the cardiovascular system, involving atherosclerosis progression, benefits for diabetes mellitus type 2, lowering of blood pressure, and exploring other cardiovascular risk factors (such as lipid profile and inflammation).

The link between the consumption of fast food and their cardiovascular risks in university students

Type of study: non-rct observational study

Number of citations: 0

Year: 2016

Authors: Kerri Puckerin

Journal:

Journal ranking: brak

Key takeaways: Fast food consumption is linked to increased cardiovascular risks in university students, with females having lower BMI and BMI being inversely related to fat and drink intake.

Abstract: Background: Fast-food consumption is increasing around the world as fast foods are high in fat, salt and sugar and it has nutritional implications on health. This study was conducted to determine the link between the consumption of fast-foods and their cardiovascular risks in university students. Design: A cross sectional study was conducted among 150 university students to analyze their dietary intake, food preference and anthropometric measurements. Results: 94.7 % of the sample consumed fast foods, in which 27.3 % of fat was above 35% of fat from energy. Females significantly reported p <0.001 lower BMI than males and BMI were inversely related to fat and drink intake. Conclusion The study revealed there is a link between fast food between fast food consumption and cardiovascular disease.

Periodic and Intermittent Fasting in Diabetes and Cardiovascular Disease

Type of study: literature review

Number of citations: 43

Year: 2020

Authors: A. Crupi, Jonathan Haase, Sebastian Brandhorst, V. Longo

Journal: Current Diabetes Reports

Journal ranking: Q1

Key takeaways: Intermittent fasting, time-restricted eating, prolonged fasting, and fasting-mimicking diets show promise in reducing cardiovascular disease risk factors, with potential for prevention and treatment.

Abstract: Purpose of ReviewCardiovascular disease (CVD) is one of the leading causes of death globally. Nutrition plays a central role in CVD risk by affecting aging, adiposity, glycemia, blood pressure, cholesterol, inflammation, and other risk factors and can affect CVD risk not only based on calorie intake and dietary composition but also the timing and range of meals. This review evaluates the effects of fasting, fasting-mimicking diets, and time-restricted eating on the reduction of CVD risk factors and provides initial data on their potential to serve as CVD prevention and treatment therapies.Recent FindingsIntermittent fasting (IF), time-restricted eating (TRE), prolonged fasting (PF), and fasting-mimicking diets (FMD) show promise in the reduction of CVD risk factors.SummaryResults on IF, TRE, PF, and FMD on CVD risk factors are significant and often independent of weight loss, yet long-term studies on their effect on CVD are still lacking. Coupling periodic and prolonged, or intermittent and more frequent cycles of fasting or fasting-mimicking diets, designed to maximize compliance and minimize side effects, has the potential to play a central role in the prevention and treatment of CVD and metabolic syndrome.

Intermittent fasting for the prevention of cardiovascular disease.

Type of study: systematic review

Number of citations: 75

Year: 2019

Authors: M. Allaf, H. Elghazaly, Omer Mohamed, Mohamed Firas Khan Fareen, Sadia Zaman, A. Salmasi, K. Tsilidis, A. Dehghan

Journal: The Cochrane database of systematic reviews

Journal ranking: Q1

Key takeaways: Intermittent fasting may reduce weight compared to ad libitum feeding, but its clinical significance and impact on cardiometabolic risk factors for cardiovascular disease remain unclear.

Abstract: BACKGROUND Cardiovascular disease (CVD) is the leading cause of death worldwide. Lifestyle changes are at the forefront of preventing the disease. This includes advice such as increasing physical activity and having a healthy balanced diet to reduce risk factors. Intermittent fasting (IF) is a popular dietary plan involving restricting caloric intake to certain days in the week such as alternate day fasting and periodic fasting, and restricting intake to a number of hours in a given day, otherwise known as time-restricted feeding. IF is being researched for its benefits and many randomised controlled trials have looked at its benefits in preventing CVD. OBJECTIVES To determine the role of IF in preventing and reducing the risk of CVD in people with or without prior documented CVD. SEARCH METHODS We conducted our search on 12 December 2019; we searched CENTRAL, MEDLINE and Embase. We also searched three trials registers and searched the reference lists of included papers. Systematic reviews were also viewed for additional studies. There was no language restriction applied. SELECTION CRITERIA We included randomised controlled trials comparing IF to ad libitum feeding (eating at any time with no specific caloric restriction) or continuous energy restriction (CER). Participants had to be over the age of 18 and included those with and without cardiometabolic risk factors. Intermittent fasting was categorised into alternate-day fasting, modified alternate-day fasting, periodic fasting and time-restricted feeding. DATA COLLECTION AND ANALYSIS Five review authors independently selected studies for inclusion and extraction. Primary outcomes included all-cause mortality, cardiovascular mortality, stroke, myocardial infarction, and heart failure. Secondary outcomes include the absolute change in body weight, and glucose. Furthermore, side effects such as headaches and changes to the quality of life were also noted. For continuous data, pooled mean differences (MD) (with 95% confidence intervals (CIs)) were calculated. We contacted trial authors to obtain missing data. We used GRADE to assess the certainty of the evidence.  MAIN RESULTS: Our search yielded 39,165 records after the removal of duplicates. From this, 26 studies met our criteria, and 18 were included in the pooled analysis. The 18 studies included 1125 participants and observed outcomes ranging from four weeks to six months. No studies included data on all-cause mortality, cardiovascular mortality, stroke, myocardial infarction, and heart failure at any point during follow-up. Of quantitatively analysed data, seven studies compared IF with ab libitum feeding, eight studies compared IF with CER, and three studies compared IF with both ad libitum feeding and CER. Outcomes were reported at short term (≤ 3 months) and medium term (> 3 months to 12 months) follow-up. Body weight was reduced with IF compared to ad libitum feeding in the short term (MD -2.88 kg, 95% CI -3.96 to -1.80; 224 participants; 7 studies; low-certainty evidence). We are uncertain of the effect of IF when compared to CER in the short term (MD -0.88 kg, 95% CI -1.76 to 0.00; 719 participants; 10 studies; very low-certainty evidence) and there may be no effect in the medium term (MD -0.56 kg, 95% CI -1.68 to 0.56; 279 participants; 4 studies; low-certainty evidence). We are uncertain about the effect of IF on glucose when compared to ad libitum feeding in the short term (MD -0.03 mmol/L, 95% CI -0.26 to 0.19; 95 participants; 3 studies; very-low-certainty of evidence) and when compared to CER  in the short term: MD -0.02 mmol/L, 95% CI -0.16 to 0.12; 582 participants; 9 studies; very low-certainty; medium term: MD 0.01, 95% CI -0.10 to 0.11; 279 participants; 4 studies; low-certainty evidence). The changes in body weight and glucose were not deemed to be clinically significant. Four studies reported data on side effects, with some participants complaining of mild headaches. One study reported on the quality of life using the RAND SF-36 score. There was a modest increase in the physical component summary score. AUTHORS' CONCLUSIONS Intermittent fasting was seen to be superior to ad libitum feeding in reducing weight. However, this was not clinically significant. There was no significant clinical difference between IF and CER in improving cardiometabolic risk factors to reduce the risk of CVD. Further research is needed to understand the safety and risk-benefit analysis of IF in specific patient groups (e.g. patients with diabetes or eating disorders) as well as the effect on longer-term outcomes such as all-cause mortality and myocardial infarction.

The Effects of Meal Timing and Frequency, Caloric Restriction, and Fasting on Cardiovascular Health: an Overview

Type of study: literature review

Number of citations: 18

Year: 2020

Authors: A. Maugeri, M. Vinciguerra

Journal: Journal of Lipid and Atherosclerosis

Journal ranking: Q1

Key takeaways: Intermittent and periodic fasting interventions show potential in preventing and treating cardiovascular disease by modulating vascular plaque composition and aging rate.

Abstract: Cardiovascular disease (CVD), which is the leading cause of death worldwide, is strongly affected by diet. Diet can affect CVD directly by modulating the composition of vascular plaques, and indirectly by affecting the rate of aging. This review summarizes research on the relationships of fasting, meal timing, and meal frequency with CVD incidence and progression. Relevant basic research studies, epidemiological studies, and clinical studies are highlighted. In particular, we discuss both intermittent and periodic fasting interventions with the potential to prevent and treat CVD.

Fast food: unfriendly and unhealthy

Type of study: non-rct observational study

Number of citations: 127

Year: 2007

Authors: S. Stender, J. Dyerberg, Astrup Av

Journal: International Journal of Obesity

Journal ranking: Q1

Key takeaways: Frequent fast-food consumption contributes to weight gain, obesity, type 2 diabetes, and coronary artery disease due to high-energy density, large portion sizes, and high levels of industrially produced trans-fatty acids.

Dietary Effects of Fasting on the Lipid Panel

Type of study: systematic review

Number of citations: 3

Year: 2024

Authors: Jason Hourizadeh, R. Munshi, R. Zeltser, A. Makaryus

Journal: Current Cardiology Reviews

Journal ranking: Q2

Key takeaways: Intermittent fasting improves cardiovascular health, weight loss, and hypertension, but its effect on cholesterol and triglyceride levels is unclear.

Abstract: Introduction Dietary habits, such as the Mediterranean diet and the Dietary Approaches to Stop Hypertension (DASH), have been shown to improve cardiac health. Another more recent popular form of dieting incorporates periods of fasting known as intermittent fasting. The two main forms are alternate-day fasting and time-restricted eating. Methods PubMed search and literature review was undertaken. This review evaluates the current literature regarding the effects of the fasting dietary model and other types of fasting upon the lipid panel. Results There have been studies that have shown that intermittent fasting does provide a benefit in cardiovascular health, weight loss, and hypertension. However, the effect on cholesterol and triglyceride levels during intermittent fasting is in question. Conclusion The effect that fasting has on one’s lipid panel is unclear, there are studies that show that different forms of fasting affect the lipid panel in various ways. There are studies that show that intermittent fasting does improve one’s lipid profile and provides health benefits. Randomized controlled clinical trials with a large sample size are needed to evaluate the effects that intermittent fasting has based on race, ethnicity, gender, obesity, dyslipidemia, diabetic and healthy patients, and will lead to definitive evidence of lipid panel outcomes beyond current evidence based solely upon observational cohorts with numerous and multifactorial confounding factors and biases.

Effect of fasting mimicking diet on cardiovascular risk factors

Type of study: systematic review

Number of citations: 0

Year: 2023

Authors: Jakub Kasprowicz, Michał Hyjek, Jakub Rafał Pierzchała, Katarzyna Bednarz, P. Banaś, Natalia Sobańska, Aleksandra Paulina Banasiak, Rafał Teichman, Kamila Abram, Justyna Adamus

Journal: Journal of Education, Health and Sport

Journal ranking: brak

Key takeaways: Fasting mimicking diets can prevent cardiovascular diseases and support weight loss, maintaining good health, and extending lifespan.

Abstract: Introduction: Cardiovascular diseases (CVDs) remain major problem in modern medicine. According to World Health Organization they are the leading cause of death. Despite increased awareness about impact of healthy lifestyle,  mortality still remains on high level. Cardiovascular diseases requires multidisciplinary treatment. One of those aspects is determinate an appropriate diet.   Purpose: The aim of this systemic review is to collect, evaluate and summarize the information on fasting mimicking diets and it is effect on therapy and prevention in cardiovascular diseases. Material and methods: Analysis and review of available literature. The search of articles in popular scientific databases such as PubMed, Google Schoolar WHO database State of knowledge: Risky behavior include unhealthy diet, tobacco use, physical inactivity, alcohol abuse. Those behaves lead obesity, raised blood pressure, hyperglycemia, dyslipidemia. Those factors have significant impact on the increase of cardiovascular diseases in the population. Fasting and calorie restriction are becoming more and more popular. Results: Many studies indicate that fasting mimicking diet can prevent from excessive fat accumulation, obesity, diabetes, dyslipidemia, hypertension As a result it decreases probability of cardiovascular diseases. Those diets not only support weight loss, but also can help maintain good health  and extend lifespan.

Beneficial effects of time-restricted fasting on cardiovascular disease risk factors: a meta-analysis

Type of study: meta-analysis

Number of citations: 1

Year: 2024

Authors: Zhengqi Qiu, Emma Yun Zhi Huang, Yufei Li, Ying Xiao, Yancheng Fu, Jun Du, Juntao Kan

Journal: BMC Cardiovascular Disorders

Journal ranking: Q2

Key takeaways: Time-restricted fasting (TRF) can effectively reduce total body weight and fat mass while maintaining lean mass, potentially improving cardiometabolic function.

Abstract: Abstract Background Cardiovascular disease continues to be a leading cause of mortality worldwide, highlighting the need to explore innovative approaches to improve cardiovascular health outcomes. Time-restricted fasting (TRF) is a dietary intervention that involves limiting the time window for food consumption. It has gained attention for its potential benefits on metabolic health and weight management. This study aims to investigate the impact of TRF on key risk factors, including body weight, glucose metabolism, blood pressure, and lipid profile. Methods We conducted a systematic search in five databases (Scopus, Embase, PubMed, Cochrane, and Web of Science) for relevant studies up to January 2023. After applying inclusion criteria, 12 studies were eligible for analysis. Quality assessment was conducted using the ROB-2.0 tool and ROBINS-I. Risk of bias was mapped using Revman 5.3, and data analysis included Hartung-Knapp adjustment using R 4.2.2. Results The group that underwent the TRF intervention exhibited a significant decrease in body weight (SMD: -0.22; 95%CI: -0.41, -0.04; P &lt; 0.05) and fat mass (SMD: -0.19; 95%CI: -0.36, -0.02; P &lt; 0.05), while maintaining lean mass (SMD: -0.09; 95%CI: -0.08, 0.26; P &gt; 0.05). Conclusion TRF has shown potential as a treatment strategy for reducing total body weight by targeting adipose tissue, with potential improvements in cardiometabolic function.

The Benefits of Fasting to Improve Health Conditions and to Prevent Cardiovascular Disease

Type of study: systematic review

Number of citations: 3

Year: 2020

Authors: W. Samudera, Gracia Victoria Fernandez, Rahmatul Fitriyah, H. Arifin, Shenda Maulina Wulandari, Roby Aji Permana

Journal: Jurnal Ners

Journal ranking: Q3

Key takeaways: Fasting can improve cardiovascular health in people at risk or with cardiovascular disease by reducing risk factors and maintaining weight, blood pressure, LDL, and triglyceride levels within normal limits.

Abstract: Introduction: Fasting is defined as the voluntary abstinence from eating for variable time intervals and it has been associated with potential beneficial impacts on human health. The study was to review the benefits of fasting on cardiovascular health in humans with or without cardiovascular disease. Methods: The databases search was done using the keywords ‘fasting’ and ‘cardiovascular system’ using Scopus, Science Direct and ProQuest, limited to between 2013 and 2019 for publication year. A total of 3.619 articles were obtained and 15 articles involving experimental and non-experimental studies were used as the reference material. Results: The findings showed that in people who are healthy, fasting can reduce the inflammatory markers (IL-1 & IL-6, TNF-α), the oxidative stress marker (Malondialdehyde), body weight, abdominal circumference, fasting blood glucose, LDL, triglyceride and blood pressure. In people at risk or with cardiovascular disease, fasting can reduce body weight, body mass index, abdominal circumference, fat percentage, blood pressure, triglyceride, the biomarker of inflammation (serum amyloid A), the biomarker of oxidative stress (protein carbonyl), the biomarker of endothelial dysfunction (asymmetric dimethylarginine) and increase the vascular endothelial growth factor. Conclusion: Based on these findings, fasting can improve the health condition of people at risk or with cardiovascular disease by improving the risk factors such as blood pressure, overweight and endothelial dysfunction. In people who are healthy, fasting can be used for the prevention of cardiovascular disease by helping to maintain their weight, blood pressure, LDL and triglyceride within the normal limits.

Effects of long-term fasting and confinement on the cardiovascular activity

Type of study: non-rct experimental

Number of citations: 5

Year: 2021

Authors: Yang Liu, Qince Li, Kuanquan Wang, Runnan He, Z. Dai, Hongyu Zhang, Chengyu Liu, Qianying Ma, Yongfeng Yuan, Chengjia Yang, Yinghui Li, Henggui Zhang

Journal: Medical & Biological Engineering & Computing

Journal ranking: Q2

Key takeaways: Long-term fasting in confined environments can negatively impact cardiovascular health by altering autonomic regulation, reducing serum sodium, increasing calcium, prolonging QTc intervals, and reducing systolic blood pressures.

Abstract: Fasting has been demonstrated to improve health and slow aging in human and other species; however, its impact on the human body in the confined environment is still unclear. This work studies the effects of long-term fasting and confined environment on the cardiovascular activities of human via a 10-day fasting experiment with two groups of subjects being in confined (6 subjects) and unconfined (7 subjects) environments respectively and undergoing the same four-stage fasting/feeding process. It is found that the confinement has significant influences on the autonomic regulation to the heart rate during the fasting process by altering the activity of the parasympathetic nervous system, which is manifested by the significant higher pNN50, rMSSD, and Ln-HF of heart rate variability (HRV) (p < 0.05) and slower heart rate (p < 0.01) in the confined group than that in the unconfined group. Furthermore, the long-term fasting induces a series of changes in both groups, including reduced level of serum sodium (p < 0.01), increased the serum calcium (p < 0.05), prolonged QTc intervals (p < 0.05), and reduced systolic blood pressures (p < 0.05). These effects are potentially negative to human health and therefore need to be treated with caution.Graphical abstractStudy of the effects of fasting and confinement on the cardiovascular activities

Analyze the Effects of Fast Food on the Health of College Going Students

Type of study:

Number of citations: 1

Year: 2022

Authors: Saira Abbas, Madiha Naz, Syed Muhammad Ahmad Gillani, Saima Afzal, Norina Jabeen, Adeela Manzoor

Journal: Pakistan Journal of Medical and Health Sciences

Journal ranking: brak

Key takeaways: Fast food negatively impacts college-going students' health, leading to heart problems, obesity, fat, sugar, and blood pressure.

Abstract: Introduction: Fast food is a major part of our present life, due to some factors such as the style of life, value and the huge commercial advertisements, it has several effects on human health. Objectives: The basic purpose of this study was to identify the effects of fast food on the health of college-going students. Material and methods: Mixed method research is used for data collection. For qualitative data, 4 key informant interviews were conducted. For quantitative data, a descriptive research design was used and random sampling techniques were selected for sample size. The sample size consisted of 107 respondents. A guideline questionnaire was used for key informants as well as a well-structured questionnaire was used for the purpose of data collection. For analysis of qualitative data thematic analysis was used. Statistical packages for social sciences (SPSS) were used for quantitative data analysis. Results: The main effects of fast food on the health of college-going students like heart problems, obesity, fat, sugar and blood pressure. Majorities (91.6%) of the respondents have information about fast food and (8.4%) did not have any information about fast food disease. A majority (77.6%) of the respondents have information about the controlled use of fast food and 22.4% did not know it. Conclusion: Mass media should spread awareness among students about the side effects of fast food. So, it is a dire need of time to create awareness among the society at youngsters’ level and nutrition programs should be studied as well as the role of mass media should be changed for creating awareness regarding the effects of fast food. Keywords: Fast food, youngsters, Human health, Lifestyle, and Awareness.

Associations of Dietary Intake with Cardiovascular Risk in Long-Term “Plant-Based Eaters”: A Secondary Analysis of a Cross-Sectional Study

Type of study:

Number of citations: 5

Year: 2024

Authors: Boštjan Jakše, Uroš Godnov, Z. Fras, Nataša Fidler Mis

Journal: Nutrients

Journal ranking: Q1

Key takeaways: A long-term plant-based diet rich in whole grains, fruits, and legumes can improve cardiovascular health, while plant-based fast food and pasta may increase uric acid levels.

Abstract: A plant-based diet rich in whole foods and fiber is beneficial for cardiovascular (CV) health. This impact is often linked to specific food groups and their preparation methods, reflecting the overall dietary pattern. However, research on the long-term effects of a carefully designed plant-based diet on adults transitioning from a typical Western lifestyle is limited. Notably, studies on people managing CV risk factors effectively are scarce. As part of a cross-sectional study, we examined 151 individuals committed to a long-term, well-designed plant-based diet and active lifestyle. We investigated how specific food groups and macronutrient intake are related to various CV health markers. In this secondary analysis, our comprehensive approach encompassed several methods: 3-day weighted dietary records, fasting blood lipid and blood pressure measurements, body composition assessments, and evaluations of lifestyle status. We adjusted our analysis for multiple variables, such as age, sex, current body mass index, smoking status, physical activity, and time (years) following the plant-based diet. Our findings revealed several associations between macronutrient intake (per 50 g) and CV risk markers, although these associations were generally weak. Individuals who consumed more whole grains and fruits had lower levels of total, low-density lipoprotein (LDL-C), and high-density lipoprotein (HDL-C) cholesterol. We also found associations between the intake of legumes and nuts/seeds and reduced HDL-C levels. These findings suggested that these food groups might influence the lipid profile, contributing to CV health in a plant-based diet. A greater intake of spices/herbs was associated with lower uric acid levels, while diets rich in plant-based fast food and pasta (made from white flour) were associated with higher uric acid levels. A greater intake of various macronutrients, such as fiber, carbohydrates (from whole-food sources), proteins, and different types of fats (saturated fatty acids [SFAs], monounsaturated fatty acids [MUFAs], and polyunsaturated fatty acids [PUFAs]), was associated with lower levels of total cholesterol, LDL-C (only for carbohydrates), and HDL-C. We found a unique negative correlation between PUFA intake and LDL-C, suggesting that PUFAs might significantly affect LDL-C levels. In contrast, increased fiber, protein and SFA consumption were associated with increased uric acid levels. These findings support the impact of dietary patterns on CV risk factors, highlighting that even small amounts of unhealthy food groups can significantly influence specific CV risk markers, regardless of the overall diet.

Fast Food Intake Increases the Incidence of Metabolic Syndrome in Children and Adolescents: Tehran Lipid and Glucose Study

Type of study: non-rct observational study

Number of citations: 62

Year: 2015

Authors: G. Asghari, E. Yuzbashian, P. Mirmiran, B. Mahmoodi, F. Azizi

Journal: PLoS ONE

Journal ranking: Q1

Key takeaways: Fast food consumption is associated with an increased incidence of metabolic syndrome, abdominal obesity, and hypertriglyceridemia in Tehranian children and adolescents.

Abstract: The aim of the study was to evaluate the association between fast food consumption and incidence of metabolic syndrome (MetS) and its components among children and adolescents over a 3.6 year follow-up. Dietary data of 424 healthy subjects, aged 6–18 years, was collected using a valid and reliable food frequency questionnaire. Metabolic syndrome was defined according to the Cook et al criteria. Consumption of fast foods including hamburgers, sausages, bologna (beef), and fried potatoes was calculated and further categorized to quartiles. Multiple logistic regression models were used to estimate the incidence of MetS and its components in each quartile of fast food intake. The incidence of MetS was 11.3% after a 3.6 year follow up. In the fully adjusted model, compared to the lowest quartile of fast food intake, individuals in the highest had odds ratios of 2.96 (95% CI: 1.02–8.63; P for trend<0.001), 2.82 (95% CI: 1.01–7.87; P for trend = 0.037), and 2.58 (95% CI: 1.01–6.61; P for trend = 0.009) for incidence of MetS, hypertriglyceridemia, and abdominal obesity, respectively. No significant association was found between fast food intakes and other components of MetS. Fast food consumption is associated with the incidence of MetS, abdominal obesity, and hypertriglyceridemia in Tehranian children and adolescents.

Regular consumption from fast food establishments relative to other restaurants is differentially associated with metabolic outcomes in young adults.

Type of study: non-rct observational study

Number of citations: 165

Year: 2009

Authors: Kiyah J. Duffey, P. Gordon-Larsen, L. Steffen, D. Jacobs, B. Popkin

Journal: The Journal of nutrition

Journal ranking: Q1

Key takeaways: Regular fast food consumption is associated with higher weight, insulin resistance, waist circumference, and triglyceride levels, and lower HDL cholesterol levels in young adults.

Abstract: Although away-from-home eating is adversely associated with weight, other comorbidities have not been examined; therefore, we sought to determine the associations of fast food (e.g. Wendy's, McDonalds) and restaurant (sit-down style) consumption (times per week) with weight and multiple metabolic outcomes, including homeostatic model assessment insulin resistance (HOMA-IR), waist circumference, and plasma triglycerides (TG), LDL cholesterol, and HDL cholesterol (HDL-C). We used 3 waves of data (exam y 7, 10, and 20) from the Coronary Artery Risk Development in Young Adults Study, a prospective cohort study of black and white young adults [aged 25-42 y in 1992-93, n = 3643 (men, 1659; women, 1984)]. Individuals in the highest (vs. lowest) quartile of baseline (defined as the mean of y 7 and 10) fast food consumption had higher y 20 weight [adjusted mean (95% CI): 5.6 kg (CI, 2.1, 9.2); P = 0.002], HOMA-IR [0.9 (CI, 0.4, 1.3); P < 0.001], waist circumference [5.3 cm (CI, 2.8, 7.9); P < 0.000], TG concentrations [0.25 mmol/L (CI, 0.10, 0.40), 22.7 mg/dL (CI, 9.1, 36.3); P = 0.001], and lower HDL-C concentrations [-0.014 mmol/L (CI, -0.215, -0.067), 5.4 mg/dL (CI, -8.3, -2.6); P < 0.000]. Baseline restaurant consumption was unrelated to y 20 outcomes. Adjusted change in weekly restaurant (P < 0.05) and fast food intake (P < 0.001) was associated with 13-y changes in body weight [0.09 kg (CI, 0.02, 0.17) and 0.15 kg (CI, 0.06, 0.24), respectively] and waist circumference [0.08 cm (CI, 0.02, 0.14) and 0.12 cm (CI, 0.04, 0.20), respectively]. Fast food consumption may be an important target for the prevention of adverse metabolic health outcomes.

Fast food consumption and the risk of metabolic syndrome after 3-years of follow-up: Tehran Lipid and Glucose Study

Type of study:

Number of citations: 57

Year: 2013

Authors: Z. Bahadoran, P. Mirmiran, F. Hosseini-Esfahani, Fereidoun Azizi

Journal: European Journal of Clinical Nutrition

Journal ranking: Q1

Key takeaways: Higher consumption of fast foods is associated with an increased risk of metabolic syndrome after 3-years of follow-up in Iranian adults.

Fast food, central nervous system insulin resistance, and obesity.

Type of study:

Number of citations: 261

Year: 2005

Authors: E. Isganaitis, R. Lustig

Journal: Arteriosclerosis, thrombosis, and vascular biology

Journal ranking: Q1

Key takeaways: Fast food consumption contributes to obesity by affecting energy metabolism and central nervous system insulin resistance, leading to leptin resistance and promoting pleasurable food responses.

Abstract: Rates of obesity and insulin resistance have climbed sharply over the past 30 years. These epidemics are temporally related to a dramatic rise in consumption of fast food; until recently, it was not known whether the fast food was driving the obesity, or vice versa. We review the unique properties of fast food that make it the ideal obesigenic foodstuff, and elucidate the mechanisms by which fast food intake contributes to obesity, emphasizing its effects on energy metabolism and on the central regulation of appetite. After examining the epidemiology of fast food consumption, obesity, and insulin resistance, we review insulin's role in the central nervous system's (CNS) regulation of energy balance, and demonstrate the role of CNS insulin resistance as a cause of leptin resistance and in the promotion of the pleasurable or 'hedonic' responses to food. Finally, we analyze the characteristics of fast food, including high-energy density, high fat, high fructose, low fiber, and low dairy intake, which favor the development of CNS insulin resistance and obesity.

Fast foods, energy density and obesity: a possible mechanistic link

Type of study: literature review

Number of citations: 755

Year: 2003

Authors: A. Prentice, S. Jebb

Journal: Obesity Reviews

Journal ranking: Q1

Key takeaways: High energy densities of fast foods challenge human appetite control systems, leading to accidental consumption of excess energy and potentially promoting weight gain and obesity.

Abstract: Fast foods are frequently linked to the epidemic of obesity, but there has been very little scientific appraisal of a possible causal role. Here we review a series of studies demonstrating that the energy density of foods is a key determinant of energy intake. These studies show that humans have a weak innate ability to recognise foods with a high energy density and to appropriately down‐regulate the bulk of food eaten in order to maintain energy balance. This induces so called ‘passive over‐consumption’. Composition data from leading fast food company websites are then used to illustrate that most fast foods have an extremely high energy density. At some typical outlets the average energy density of the entire menus is ∼1100 kJ 100 g–1. This is 65% higher than the average British diet (∼670 kJ 100 g–1) and more than twice the energy density of recommended healthy diets (∼525 kJ 100 g–1). It is 145% higher than traditional African diets (∼450 kJ 100 g–1) that probably represent the levels against which human weight regulatory mechanisms have evolved. We conclude that the high energy densities of many fast foods challenge human appetite control systems with conditions for which they were never designed. Among regular consumers they are likely to result in the accidental consumption of excess energy and hence to promote weight gain and obesity.

Gender and gut microbiota composition determine hepatic bile acid, metabolic and inflammatory response to a single fast-food meal in healthy adults.

Type of study: non-rct experimental

Number of citations: 9

Year: 2021

Authors: A. Figge, S. Sydor, C. Wenning, P. Manka, S. Assmuth, R. Vílchez-Vargas, A. Link, A. Jähnert, S. Brodesser, C. Lucas, Y. Nevzorova, K. Faber, H. Moshage, M. Porsch-Özçürümez, G. Gerken, F. Cubero, A. Canbay, L. Bechmann

Journal: Clinical nutrition

Journal ranking: Q1

Key takeaways: A single fast-food binge leads to a robust increase in serum bile acid levels and alterations in liver injury and metabolism, with gut microbiota composition and gender playing a role.

The Global Epidemic of the Metabolic Syndrome

Type of study:

Number of citations: 2789

Year: 2018

Authors: M. Saklayen

Journal: Current Hypertension Reports

Journal ranking: Q1

Key takeaways: Metabolic syndrome, caused by high calorie-low fiber fast food and decreased physical activity, has become a global health issue, with potential for global solutions through better urban planning, whole grain consumption, and promoting healthy lifestyles.

Abstract: Metabolic syndrome, variously known also as syndrome X, insulin resistance, etc., is defined by WHO as a pathologic condition characterized by abdominal obesity, insulin resistance, hypertension, and hyperlipidemia. Though there is some variation in the definition by other health care organization, the differences are minor. With the successful conquest of communicable infectious diseases in most of the world, this new non-communicable disease (NCD) has become the major health hazard of modern world. Though it started in the Western world, with the spread of the Western lifestyle across the globe, it has become now a truly global problem. The prevalence of the metabolic syndrome is often more in the urban population of some developing countries than in its Western counterparts. The two basic forces spreading this malady are the increase in consumption of high calorie-low fiber fast food and the decrease in physical activity due to mechanized transportations and sedentary form of leisure time activities. The syndrome feeds into the spread of the diseases like type 2 diabetes, coronary diseases, stroke, and other disabilities. The total cost of the malady including the cost of health care and loss of potential economic activity is in trillions. The present trend is not sustainable unless a magic cure is found (unlikely) or concerted global/governmental/societal efforts are made to change the lifestyle that is promoting it. There are certainly some elements in the causation of the metabolic syndrome that cannot be changed but many are amenable for corrections and curtailments. For example, better urban planning to encourage active lifestyle, subsidizing consumption of whole grains and possible taxing high calorie snacks, restricting media advertisement of unhealthy food, etc. Revitalizing old fashion healthier lifestyle, promoting old-fashioned foods using healthy herbs rather than oil and sugar, and educating people about choosing healthy/wholesome food over junks are among the steps that can be considered.

Intermittent Fasting and Metabolic Health

Type of study:

Number of citations: 147

Year: 2022

Authors: I. Vasim, C. Majeed, M. DeBoer

Journal: Nutrients

Journal ranking: Q1

Key takeaways: Intermittent fasting can lead to weight loss and improved metabolic health, making it a potential option for individuals experiencing unhealthy weight gain through standard eating patterns.

Abstract: Given the ongoing strain that the obesity epidemic has placed on public health outcomes, new and effective approaches to weight control are needed. One approach to improving weight and metabolic outcomes is intermittent fasting, which consists of multiple different timing schedules for temporary food avoidance, including alternate-day fasting, other similar full-day fasting patterns, and time-restricted feeding (where the day’s food is consumed over a 6-h period, allowing for 18 h of fasting). These feeding schedules have favorable metabolic effects by intermittently inducing the metabolism of fatty acids to ketones. The regimens overall lead to a decrease in weight and have been linked to improvements in dyslipidemia and blood pressure. While more research is needed on longer-term outcomes and this approach should be avoided in particular health conditions, intermittent fasting should be considered as an option for individuals who have a pattern of unhealthy weight gain using standard eating patterns.

The Effect of Fasting on Human Metabolism and Psychological Health

Type of study:

Number of citations: 57

Year: 2022

Authors: Yiren Wang, Ruilin Wu

Journal: Disease Markers

Journal ranking: Q2

Key takeaways: Fasting can affect human metabolism and psychological health, with potential benefits for weight loss and treating certain diseases.

Abstract: Fasting is a prevalent approach to weight loss and is a feasible method for treating some diseases, such as type 2 diabetes. Meanwhile, the effects of intermittent fasting on health, aging, and disease process are hot issues and are of concern by researchers of multiple areas, even the public. This article introduces the effects of fasting on human lipid metabolism, glucose metabolism, protein metabolism, and neuroendocrine metabolism; demonstrates the metabolic conversion caused by fasting; and describes the effects of fasting on human psychological health, the relationship between mood regulation and glucose, and the emotional enhancing effect induced by fasting.

Can Fasting Curb the Metabolic Syndrome Epidemic?

Type of study: literature review

Number of citations: 14

Year: 2022

Authors: J. Vrdoljak, Marko Kumrić, Marino Vilović, Dinko Martinović, V. Rogošić, J. Borovac, Tina Tičinović Kurir, J. Božić

Journal: Nutrients

Journal ranking: Q1

Key takeaways: Intermittent fasting and time-restricted feeding show potential in improving gut microbiota, glucose and insulin metabolism, weight, and lipid metabolism, but more randomized control trials are needed to confirm their suitability for patients with metabolic syndrome.

Abstract: Metabolic syndrome (MetS) represents a cluster of metabolic abnormalities that includes hypertension, central obesity, insulin resistance, and atherogenic dyslipidemia. Due to the high prevalence (around 1/3 of the world population) economic burden of MetS, there is a need for new dietary, lifestyle, and therapeutic options. Recently, fasting emerged as a dietary method proposed for controlling metabolic risk factors. Intermittent fasting (IF), or time-restricted feeding (TRF), describes an array of feeding patterns in which calorie intake is restricted to a specific time period. Hence, this review aimed to elucidate the latest data on MetS and explore the viability of simple management options, such as IF and TRF. Preclinical studies have shown how IF/TRF exerts beneficial effects on the gut microbiota, glucose and insulin metabolism, weight and visceral fat, and lipid metabolism. However, the results obtained from human studies are somewhat conflicting, as weight loss was achieved in all studies, whereas in some studies, there was no significant effect on insulin resistance, cholesterol/lipid metabolism, or blood pressure. Nevertheless, as only very few human studies were performed, there is a need for more randomized control trials on larger cohorts of patients with MetS to gather higher-yield evidence to clarify whether IF/TRF are suitable dietary patterns for this population.

Flipping the Metabolic Switch: Understanding and Applying Health Benefits of Fasting

Type of study:

Number of citations: 517

Year: 2017

Authors: S. Anton, Keelin Moehl, W. Donahoo, Krisztina Marosi, Stephanie A Lee, A. Mainous, C. Leeuwenburgh, M. Mattson

Journal: Obesity (Silver Spring, Md.)

Journal ranking: Q1

Key takeaways: Intermittent fasting, when no or few calories are consumed for periods of 12 hours to several days, can lead to physiological responses in major organ systems, including the musculoskeletal system, that can improve health.

Abstract: Intermittent fasting (IF) is a term used to describe a variety of eating patterns in which no or few calories are consumed for time periods that can range from 12 hours to several days, on a recurring basis. This review is focused on the physiological responses of major organ systems, including the musculoskeletal system, to the onset of the metabolic switch: the point of negative energy balance at which liver glycogen stores are depleted and fatty acids are mobilized (typically beyond 12 hours after cessation of food intake).

Fasting and metabolic syndrome: A systematic review and Meta-analyses

Type of study: meta-analysis

Number of citations: 3

Year: 2022

Authors: Xue Li, Binbin Nian, Ruizhi Li, Xinyu Cao, Yanjun Liu, Y. Liu, Yong‐jiang Xu

Journal: Critical Reviews in Food Science and Nutrition

Journal ranking: Q1

Key takeaways: Fasting significantly reduces body weight, BMI, body fat percent, insulin levels, and HOMA-IR in patients with metabolic syndrome, but has no effect on glucose, blood pressure, or lipids profile.

Abstract: Abstract Objective: Fasting is considered to be a food structure that can improve body health. Several randomized clinical trials (RCTs) have investigated the effects of fasting in patients with metabolic syndrome (MS). In this review, we performed a meta-analysis to assess the effects of fasting on patients with MS. Methods: Following PRISMA guidelines, a systematic literature search was conducted in PubMed, Embase, and Cochrane Central updated to September 2021. The quality evaluation and heterogeneity detection of the included research literature were carried out by Revman and Stata software through a random-effects model. Results: A total of 268 subjects were included. The pooled results revealed that fasting significantly reduced body weight (WMD: −2.48 kg, 95% CI: −3.22, −1.74), BMI (WMD = −2.72 cm; 95%CI: −4.04, −1.40 cm), body fat percent (WMD: −1.57%, 95%CI: −2.47, −0.68), insulin level (WMD: −2.45 mmol/L; 95%CI: −4.40, −0.49 mmol/L) and HOMA-IR (WMD:-0.65 mmol/L; 95%CI: −0.90, −0.41 mmol/L) in patients with MS, whereas had no effect on glucose, blood pressure and lipids profile. Conclusions: Our findings provide insights into the effect of fasting on the anthropometric outcomes, insulin resistance, and gut microbiota in MS.

Fasting drives the metabolic, molecular, and geroprotective effects of a calorie restricted diet in mice

Type of study: non-rct experimental

Number of citations: 119

Year: 2021

Authors: Heidi H Pak, Spencer A. Haws, Cara L. Green, Mikaela Koller, Mitchell T Lavarias, Nicole E. Richardson, Shany E. Yang, S. Dumas, Michelle M Sonsalla, L. Bray, Michelle S. Johnson, S. Barnes, V. Darley-Usmar, Jianhua Zhang, C. L. Yen, J. Denu, Dudley Lamming

Journal: Nature metabolism

Journal ranking: Q1

Key takeaways: Prolonged fasting, rather than solely reduced caloric intake, is responsible for the metabolic and geroprotective benefits of a calorie-restricted diet in mice.

Impact of intermittent fasting on health and disease processes

Type of study:

Number of citations: 890

Year: 2017

Authors: M. Mattson, V. Longo, M. Harvie

Journal: Ageing Research Reviews

Journal ranking: Q1

Key takeaways: Intermittent fasting can improve health and counteract age-related disorders, including diabetes, cardiovascular disease, cancers, and neurological disorders.

Health Benefits of Fasting and Caloric Restriction

Type of study: literature review

Number of citations: 192

Year: 2017

Authors: S. Golbidi, A. Daiber, B. Korac, Huige Li, M. Essop, I. Laher

Journal: Current Diabetes Reports

Journal ranking: Q1

Key takeaways: Fasting and intermittent calorie restriction have many health benefits, including improved metabolism, reduced diabetes risk, and reduced malnutrition, but behavioral modifications are crucial for maintaining favorable outcomes.

Abstract: Purpose of ReviewObesity and obesity-related diseases, largely resulting from urbanization and behavioral changes, are now of global importance. Energy restriction, though, is associated with health improvements and increased longevity. We review some important mechanisms related to calorie limitation aimed at controlling of metabolic diseases, particularly diabetes.Recent FindingsCalorie restriction triggers a complex series of intricate events, including activation of cellular stress response elements, improved autophagy, modification of apoptosis, and alteration in hormonal balance. Intermittent fasting is not only more acceptable to patients, but it also prevents some of the adverse effects of chronic calorie restriction, especially malnutrition.SummaryThere are many somatic and potentially psychologic benefits of fasting or intermittent calorie restriction. However, some behavioral modifications related to abstinence of binge eating following a fasting period are crucial in maintaining the desired favorable outcomes.

Reduced caloric intake and periodic fasting independently contribute to metabolic effects of caloric restriction

Type of study: non-rct experimental

Number of citations: 33

Year: 2020

Authors: Nikkhil Velingkaar, Volha Mezhnina, Allan Poe, Kuldeep Makwana, R. Tulsian, R. Kondratov

Journal: Aging Cell

Journal ranking: Q1

Key takeaways: Caloric restriction and periodic fasting both contribute to metabolic benefits, but time-restricted feeding is metabolically different from caloric restriction, potentially impacting longevity.

Abstract: Caloric restriction (CR) has positive effects on health and longevity. CR in mammals implements time‐restricted (TR) feeding, a short period of feeding followed by prolonged fasting. Periodic fasting, in the form of TR or mealtime, improves metabolism without reduction in caloric intake. In order to understand the relative contribution of reduced food intake and periodic fasting to the health benefits of CR, we compared physiological and metabolic changes induced by CR and TR (without reduced food intake) in mice. CR significantly reduced blood glucose and insulin around the clock, improved glucose tolerance, and increased insulin sensitivity (IS). TR reduced blood insulin and increased insulin sensitivity, but in contrast to CR, TR did not improve glucose homeostasis. Liver expression of circadian clock genes was affected by both diets while the mRNA expression of glucose metabolism genes was significantly induced by CR, and not by TR, which is in agreement with the minor effect of TR on glucose metabolism. Thus, periodic fasting contributes to some metabolic benefits of CR, but TR is metabolically different from CR. This difference might contribute to differential effects of CR and TR on longevity.

Intermittent Fasting and 'Metabolic Switch': Effects on Metabolic Syndrome, Pre-diabetes and Type 2 Diabetes Mellitus.

Type of study: systematic review

Number of citations: 44

Year: 2020

Authors: Aman Rajpal, F. Ismail-Beigi

Journal: Diabetes, obesity & metabolism

Journal ranking: Q1

Key takeaways: Intermittent fasting regimens show similar effectiveness to calorie restriction for weight loss and glycemic improvement in individuals with metabolic syndrome, pre-diabetes, and type 2 diabetes mellitus, but long-term adherence and sustainability require further study.

Abstract: Various intermittent fasting (IF) dietary plans have gained popularity among obese individuals in recent years as a means of achieving weight loss. Yet, studies evaluating the effect of IF regimens in people with metabolic syndrome, pre-diabetes and type 2 diabetes mellitus (T2DM) are limited. The aim of the present review is to briefly elucidate the biochemical and physiological mechanisms underlying the positive effects of IF, especially the effect of the proposed 'metabolic switch' on metabolism. Then, we will examine the efficacy and safety of IF regimens in individuals with metabolic syndrome, pre-diabetes, and T2DM. For this, we performed a MEDLINE PubMed search using the combination of various terminology of IF and included trials in which participants met the additional criteria for either metabolic syndrome, pre-diabetes or T2DM. We found four studies in individuals with metabolic syndrome, one study in persons with pre-diabetes, and eight studies in people with T2DM evaluating the effects of different IF regimens. The limited available evidence with small sample sizes and short duration, suggests that IF regimens have similar effectiveness compared to calorie restriction (CR) diets for weight loss and improvement in glycemic parameters. In general, most IF regimens are effective and safe. However, there is increased risk of hypoglycemia in patients with T2DM who are treated with insulin or sulfonylureas. Moreover, the long-term adherence to these regimens appears uncertain. There is a need for large controlled randomized trials to evaluate the efficacy of IF regimens especially in individuals with metabolic syndrome and pre-diabetes. If proven to be sustainable and efficacious for prolonged periods, IF could offer a promising approach to improving health at the population level, and would result in multiple public health benefits.

Diet and metabolic syndrome: a narrative review

Type of study: literature review

Number of citations: 41

Year: 2023

Authors: F. Angelico, F. Baratta, M. Coronati, D. Ferro, M. del Ben

Journal: Internal and Emergency Medicine

Journal ranking: Q1

Key takeaways: A Mediterranean diet and DASH diet, with or without calorie restriction, can help prevent and manage metabolic syndrome by increasing fiber, low-glycemic-index foods, fish, dairy, and nuts.

Abstract: Metabolic syndrome (MetS) is a highly prevalent condition defined by the presence of at least three out of five risk factors including central obesity, increased fasting glucose, high blood pressure, and dyslipidaemia. Metabolic syndrome is associated with a 2-fold increase in cardiovascular outcomes and a 1.5-fold increase in all-cause mortality. Excess energy intake and Western dietary pattern may influence the development of metabolic syndrome. By contrast, both Mediterranean diet (Med-diet) and Dietary Approaches to Stop Hypertension (DASH) diet, with or without calorie restriction, have positive effects. For the prevention and management of MetS, it is recommended to increase the daily intake of fiber-rich and low-glycaemic-index foods and the consumption of fish and dairy products, especially yogurt and nuts. Moreover, it is advisable to consume a large variety of unprocessed cereals, legumes, and fruit. Finally, it is suggested to replace saturated fatty acids with monounsaturated and polyunsaturated fatty acids and to limit the consumption of free sugars to less than 10% of the total energy intake. The aim of this narrative review is to analyze current evidence on the different dietary patterns and nutrients that may affect prevention and treatment of MetS and to discuss the underlying pathophysiological mechanisms.

Effects of intermittent fasting on body composition and clinical health markers in humans.

Type of study: literature review

Number of citations: 287

Year: 2015

Authors: G. Tinsley, P. L. La Bounty

Journal: Nutrition reviews

Journal ranking: Q1

Key takeaways: Intermittent fasting effectively reduces body weight, body fat, and improves blood lipids in normal-weight, overweight, and obese humans.

Abstract: Intermittent fasting is a broad term that encompasses a variety of programs that manipulate the timing of eating occasions by utilizing short-term fasts in order to improve body composition and overall health. This review examines studies conducted on intermittent fasting programs to determine if they are effective at improving body composition and clinical health markers associated with disease. Intermittent fasting protocols can be grouped into alternate-day fasting, whole-day fasting, and time-restricted feeding. Alternate-day fasting trials of 3 to 12 weeks in duration appear to be effective at reducing body weight (≈3%-7%), body fat (≈3-5.5 kg), total cholesterol (≈10%-21%), and triglycerides (≈14%-42%) in normal-weight, overweight, and obese humans. Whole-day fasting trials lasting 12 to 24 weeks also reduce body weight (≈3%-9%) and body fat, and favorably improve blood lipids (≈5%-20% reduction in total cholesterol and ≈17%-50% reduction in triglycerides). Research on time-restricted feeding is limited, and clear conclusions cannot be made at present. Future studies should examine long-term effects of intermittent fasting and the potential synergistic effects of combining intermittent fasting with exercise.

The effects of intermittent fasting on body composition and cardiometabolic health in adults with prediabetes or type 2 diabetes: A systematic review and meta‐analysis

Type of study: meta-analysis

Number of citations: 9

Year: 2024

Authors: M. Khalafi, Aref Habibi Maleki, Michael E Symonds, S. K. Rosenkranz, Hadi Rohani, Mahsa Ehsanifar

Journal: Diabetes

Journal ranking: Q1

Key takeaways: Intermittent fasting improves body composition and cardiometabolic health compared to a control diet or calorie restriction in individuals with prediabetes or type 2 diabetes.

Abstract: To perform a meta‐analysis to investigate the effects of intermittent fasting (IF), as compared with either a control diet (CON) and/or calorie restriction (CR), on body composition and cardiometabolic health in individuals with prediabetes and type 2 diabetes (T2D).

Intermittent Fasting: Does It Affect Sports Performance? A Systematic Review

Type of study: systematic review

Number of citations: 11

Year: 2024

Authors: J. Conde-Pipó, A. Mora-Fernández, M. Martínez-Bebia, Nuria Gimenez-Blasi, Alejandro López-Moro, J. A. Latorre, Antonio Almendros-Ruiz, Bernardo Requena, Miguel Mariscal-Arcas

Journal: Nutrients

Journal ranking: Q1

Key takeaways: Intermittent fasting improves body composition without reducing physical performance, maintaining lean mass, and improving maximum power in athletes.

Abstract: Intermittent fasting is one of the most popular types of diet at the moment because it is an effective nutritional strategy in terms of weight loss. The main objective of this review is to analyze the effects that intermittent fasting has on sports performance. We analyzed physical capacities: aerobic capacity, anaerobic capacity, strength, and power, as well as their effect on body composition. For this, a bibliographic search was carried out in several databases where 25 research articles were analyzed to clarify these objectives. Inclusion criteria: dates between 2013 and present, free full texts, studies conducted in adult human athletes, English and/or Spanish languages, and if it has been considered that intermittent fasting is mainly linked to sports practice and that this obtains a result in terms of performance or physical capacities. This review was registered in PROSPERO with code ref. 407024, and an evaluation of the quality or risk of bias was performed. After this analysis, results were obtained regarding the improvement of body composition and the maintenance of muscle mass. An influence of intermittent fasting on sports performance and body composition is observed. It can be concluded that intermittent fasting provides benefits in terms of body composition without reducing physical performance, maintenance of lean mass, and improvements in maximum power. But despite this, it is necessary to carry out new studies focusing on the sports field since the samples have been very varied. Additionally, the difference in hours of intermittent fasting should be studied, especially in the case of overnight fasting.

Relationships Between Body Image and Body Parameters in Men Under Long-Term Fasting Conditions

Type of study:

Number of citations: 0

Year: 2025

Authors: Alicja Głębocka, W. Pilis, Alicja Żak, Anna Pilis, Karol Pilis

Journal: Nutrients

Journal ranking: Q1

Key takeaways: Fasting and physical exertion positively influence body satisfaction and health assessment, but do not alter body image parameters in middle-aged men.

Abstract: Background/Objectives: Fasting and physical exertion positively affect body mass and composition. This study aimed to examine the effects of physical changes induced by eight days of water-only fasting and a physical exertion test and their influence on body satisfaction and body image parameters in middle-aged men. Methods: Fifteen participants were assessed for physical (height, body mass, and body composition) and psychological (body satisfaction, evaluation of body parts, and body image determinants) aspects before and after the fasting intervention, both at rest and post-exercise. Correlation and concordance coefficients were calculated for the analyzed variables. Results: It was found that the fasting intervention led to a reduction in body mass and a favorable shift in body composition, while also increasing satisfaction with one’s body and its specific parts. This positively impacted volunteers’ self-assessment of their health status. Selected body image parameters remained at an average level for the male population and did not change following the fasting. Attitudes toward body weight control methods and their perceived effectiveness did not change either. Participants favored reducing food intake and eliminating high-calorie products from their diet, rejecting the use pathological methods typically associated with eating disorders. A few associations between physical and psychological aspects of corporeality were observed, whereas significant correlations between satisfaction with body parts and parameters and a positive body image were confirmed. Conclusions: The above suggest that physical conditions and their changes resulting from fasting and physical exertion lead to a positive influence on body satisfaction and its components but do not alter body image.

Impact of Acute Dietary Manipulations on DXA and BIA Body Composition Estimates

Type of study: non-rct experimental

Number of citations: 47

Year: 2017

Authors: G. Tinsley, E. Morales, Jeffrey S. Forsse, P. Grandjean

Journal: Medicine & Science in Sports & Exercise

Journal ranking: Q1

Key takeaways: Acute food and fluid intake can artificially influence body composition estimates, with an overnight fast likely being sufficient for DXA and possibly BIA preassessment.

Abstract: Purpose To examine the effects of acute preassessment diets on body composition estimates obtained by dual-energy x-ray absorptiometry (DXA) and bioelectrical impedance analysis (BIA). Methods In a counterbalanced design, 48 males and females were provided with two 1-d diets: high-carbohydrate diet (9 g CHO·kg−1) and very low-carbohydrate diet (1 to 1.5 g CHO·kg−1). For each condition, body composition was assessed in the morning after an overnight fast, in the afternoon after feeding, and the following morning after a second overnight fast. Results Acute food ingestion, regardless of macronutrient content, altered DXA and BIA body composition estimates, and both sexes responded similarly. DXA total and regional lean soft tissue estimates increased up to 1.7% and 3% on average in response to feeding, with individual increases of over 4.5% and 9%. DXA total and trunk fat mass estimates decreased by up to 3% on average. All DXA-derived measures of body composition returned to baseline values after the second overnight fast. Impedance measured by BIA decreased by 4.4% in response to feeding, leading to a 2% increase in total body water and fat-free mass, with individual increases up to 4.5%. BIA fat mass estimates decreased 1.4% to 2.4%, with individual decreases of up to 10%. Unlike DXA, most BIA-derived estimates did not return to baseline values after a second overnight fast. Conclusions Acute food and fluid intake can artificially influence body composition estimates, regardless of macronutrient content. An overnight fast is likely sufficient preassessment dietary control for DXA and possibly sufficient for BIA.

The influence of market deregulation on fast food consumption and body mass index: a cross-national time series analysis.

Type of study: non-rct observational study

Number of citations: 158

Year: 2014

Authors: R. De Vogli, A. Kouvonen, D. Gimeno

Journal: Bulletin of the World Health Organization

Journal ranking: Q1

Key takeaways: Market deregulation policies may contribute to the obesity epidemic by facilitating the spread of fast food consumption in high-income countries.

Abstract: OBJECTIVE To investigate the effect of fast food consumption on mean population body mass index (BMI) and explore the possible influence of market deregulation on fast food consumption and BMI. METHODS The within-country association between fast food consumption and BMI in 25 high-income member countries of the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development between 1999 and 2008 was explored through multivariate panel regression models, after adjustment for per capita gross domestic product, urbanization, trade openness, lifestyle indicators and other covariates. The possible mediating effect of annual per capita intake of soft drinks, animal fats and total calories on the association between fast food consumption and BMI was also analysed. Two-stage least squares regression models were conducted, using economic freedom as an instrumental variable, to study the causal effect of fast food consumption on BMI. FINDINGS After adjustment for covariates, each 1-unit increase in annual fast food transactions per capita was associated with an increase of 0.033 kg/m2 in age-standardized BMI (95% confidence interval, CI: 0.013-0.052). Only the intake of soft drinks--not animal fat or total calories--mediated the observed association (β: 0.030; 95% CI: 0.010-0.050). Economic freedom was an independent predictor of fast food consumption (β: 0.27; 95% CI: 0.16-0.37). When economic freedom was used as an instrumental variable, the association between fast food and BMI weakened but remained significant (β: 0.023; 95% CI: 0.001-0.045). CONCLUSION Fast food consumption is an independent predictor of mean BMI in high-income countries. Market deregulation policies may contribute to the obesity epidemic by facilitating the spread of fast food.

Evaluation of the relationship between body composition and dietary habits of physically active people with disabilities

Type of study: non-rct observational study

Number of citations: 2

Year: 2024

Authors: A. Pelc, Katarzyna Walicka-Cupryś, Gabriela Puszkarz, Kamila Styś, Elżbieta Chmiel, Sebastian Wilk, Grzegorz Ludwikowski, Katarzyna Placek

Journal: Scientific Reports

Journal ranking: Q1

Key takeaways: Physically active people with disabilities tend to have higher body fat and dietary habits suggest caution against processed fruits, fast food, and red meat.

Impact of daily fasting duration on body composition and cardiometabolic risk factors during a time-restricted eating protocol: a randomized controlled trial

Type of study: rct

Number of citations: 3

Year: 2024

Authors: A. Sampieri, A. Paoli, G. Spinello, E. Santinello, T. Moro

Journal: Journal of Translational Medicine

Journal ranking: Q1

Key takeaways: A 16-hour fasting window, even without caloric restriction, may improve body composition in healthy and non-trained individuals, while shorter fasting periods may not produce significant changes.

Abstract: Abstract Background Time-restricted eating (TRE) is a dietary regimen that limits food intake for at least 12 h daily. Unlike other fasting protocols, TRE does not dictate what or how much to eat but rather focuses on the timing of meals. This approach has been previously demonstrated to improve body composition in individuals with obesity or metabolic impairments. However, its impact on body composition and cardiometabolic factors in healthy individuals remains unclear. Furthermore, the optimal fasting duration is still debated. Thus, we aimed to compare the effects of 8 weeks of different fasting durations on body composition and biochemical parameters in metabolically healthy, non-trained individuals using a parallel randomized controlled trial. Methods Forty-one volunteers were randomly assigned to one of the four experimental groups: TRE 16:8 (16 h of fasting,8 h of eating), TRE 14:10 (14 h of fasting,10 h of eating), TRE 12:12 (12 h of fasting,12 h of eating) or a normal diet group (ND; no dietary restriction). Participants underwent body composition measurements and blood tests for lipid profiles (i.e., total cholesterol, LDL, HDL, and triglycerides), fasting glucose, leptin, and anabolic hormones (i.e., insulin and testosterone) levels. Data were analyzed using both intention-to-treat (ITT) and per-protocol (PP) analysis to account for compliance. A two-way ANOVA for repeated measures was employed to assess interactions between time and group. Results In the ITT analysis, TRE 16:8 reduced body mass (-2.46%, p = 0.003) and absolute fat mass (-8.65%, p = 0.001) with no changes in lean soft tissue and in calorie intake. These results were consistent with the PP analysis which included 8 participants in TRE 16:8, 5 in TRE 14:10, 9 in TRE 12:12, and the entire ND group. Participants in the TRE 16:8 group spontaneously reduced their total caloric intake, although this reduction was not statistically significant. None of the other measurements significantly changed after 8 weeks. Conclusions Our results suggest that a 16-hour fasting window, even without caloric restriction, may be a viable strategy for improving body composition in healthy and non-trained individuals, whereas a shorter fasting period may be insufficient to produce significant changes in a healthy population. Trial registration NCT, NCT04503005. Registered 4 August 2020, https://clinicaltrials.gov/study/NCT04503005 .

Effect of Early Time-Restricted Eating on Metabolic Markers and Body Composition in Individuals with Overweight or Obesity

Type of study: rct

Number of citations: 1

Year: 2024

Authors: Dalila Rubí Mena-Hernández, G. Jiménez-Domínguez, José D. Méndez, Viridiana Olvera-Hernández, Mirian C. Martínez-López, Crystell G. Guzmán-Priego, Zeniff Reyes-López, Meztli Ramos-García, I. Juárez-Rojop, Selene S. Zavaleta-Toledo, J. Ble-Castillo

Journal: Nutrients

Journal ranking: Q1

Key takeaways: Early time-restricted eating (eTRE) did not show beneficial effects on glycemic and lipid metabolisms, body composition, subjective appetite, or blood pressure in individuals with overweight or obesity.

Abstract: This study aimed to evaluate the effect of early time-restricted eating (eTRE) on metabolic markers and body composition in individuals with overweight or obesity. Seventeen subjects completed a randomized, crossover, and controlled clinical trial. Twelve women and five men participated, with a mean age of 25.8 ± 10.0 years and a BMI of 32.0 ± 6.3 kg/m2. The eTRE intervention included 16 h of fasting (3:00 pm to 7:00 am) and 8 h of ad libitum eating (7:00 am to 03:00 pm) (16:8). The trial included four weeks of interventions followed by a four-week washout period. Body weight, waist and hip circumferences, and body composition measurements were taken. Additionally, a venous blood sample was collected for biochemical determinations. In a before–after analysis, eTRE induced a reduction in BW and BMI in women but this was not significant when compared to the control group. eTRE did not modify any other anthropometric measurements, fasting biochemical parameters, glycemic and insulinemic responses, blood pressure, or subjective appetite. In conclusion, eTRE did not induce beneficial effects on the glycemic and lipid metabolisms, body composition, subjective appetite, or blood pressure. These findings may be attributed to the special characteristics of the population and the short intervention period.

Effectiveness of an intermittent fasting diet versus continuous energy restriction on anthropometric measurements, body composition and lipid profile in overweight and obese adults: a meta-analysis

Type of study: meta-analysis

Number of citations: 47

Year: 2020

Authors: Andrea Enríquez Guerrero, I. San Mauro Martín, E. Garicano Vilar, M. A. Camina Martín

Journal: European Journal of Clinical Nutrition

Journal ranking: Q1

Key takeaways: An intermittent fasting diet may improve anthropometry, body composition, and lipid profile in overweight or obese adults, but its adherence is inconclusive.

Longer‐term effects of intermittent fasting on body composition and cardiometabolic health in adults with overweight and obesity: A systematic review and meta‐analysis

Type of study: meta-analysis

Number of citations: 3

Year: 2024

Authors: M. Khalafi, Aref Habibi Maleki, Mahsa Ehsanifar, Michael E. Symonds, S. K. Rosenkranz

Journal: Obesity Reviews

Journal ranking: Q1

Key takeaways: Long-term intermittent fasting and continuous caloric restriction are similarly effective for reducing body weight and adiposity, and improving cardiometabolic health markers in adults with overweight or obesity.

Abstract: The aim of the present study was to investigate the effects of long‐term intermittent fasting (IF) on body composition and cardiometabolic health in adults with overweight and obesity. PubMed, Web of Science, and Scopus were searched from inception to March 2024 to identify original randomized trials that investigated the effects of IF versus either a control diet (CON) and/or continuous caloric restriction (CR). Participants were adults with overweight and obesity and intervention durations were ≥ 6 months. Overall, a total of 24 studies involving 2032 participants were included in the meta‐analysis. Compared with CON, IF significantly reduced body weight [WMD: −2.84 kg], BMI [WMD: −1.41 kg.m2], fat mass [WMD: −3.06 kg], fat‐free mass [WMD: −0.81 kg], waist circumference [WMD: −3.85 cm], visceral fat [SMD: −0.37], fasting glucose [WMD: −0.14 mmol/l], triglycerides [WMD: −0.12 mmol/l], and diastolic blood pressure [WMD: −2.24 mmHg]. Conversely, IF significantly increased high‐density lipoproteins [WMD: 0.04 mmol/l] when compared with CON, but had no effects on insulin, hemoglobin A1c%, total cholesterol, low‐density lipoprotein, or systolic blood pressure. Compared with CR, IF significantly reduced fat mass [WMD: −0.70 kg], body fat percentage [WMD: −0.59%], and DBP [WMD: −0.91 mmHg], and increased HDL [WMD: 0.03 mmol/l], with no other significant effects. Subgroup analyses showed that the mode of IF and intervention duration were the primary moderators of IF effects on the markers. In adults with overweight or obesity, IF and CR are comparably effective for reducing body weight and adiposity, as well as for improving cardiometabolic health markers.

Effectiveness of an intermittent fasting diet versus regular diet on fat loss in overweight and obese middle-aged and olderly people without metabolic disease: a systematic review and meta-analysis of randomized controlled trials.

Type of study: meta-analysis

Number of citations: 9

Year: 2024

Authors: Ke Yao, Hao Su, Kaiyin Cui, Ye Gao, Dengyun Xu, Qian Wang, Zhitong Ha, Teng Zhang, Shuning Chen, Tao Liu

Journal: The journal of nutrition, health & aging

Journal ranking: Q1

Key takeaways: Intermittent fasting can effectively reduce body weight, BMI, fat mass, and TG in adults aged over 40 with obesity without metabolic disease, without significantly decreasing lean body mass.

Effect of Ramadan Fasting on Weight and Body Composition in Healthy Non-Athlete Adults: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis

Type of study: meta-analysis

Number of citations: 180

Year: 2019

Authors: Hamish A Fernando, J. Zibellini, Rebecca A Harris, R. Seimon, A. Sainsbury

Journal: Nutrients

Journal ranking: Q1

Key takeaways: Ramadan fasting leads to temporary reductions in weight and fat mass, particularly in individuals with overweight or obesity, without lifestyle changes.

Abstract: Background: Ramadan involves one month of fasting from sunrise to sunset. In this meta-analysis, we aimed to determine the effect of Ramadan fasting on weight and body composition. Methods: In May 2018, we searched six databases for publications that measured weight and body composition before and after Ramadan, and that did not attempt to influence physical activity or diet. Results: Data were collected from 70 publications (90 comparison groups, 2947 participants). There was a significant positive correlation between starting body mass index and weight lost during the fasting period. Consistently, there was a significant reduction in fat percentage between pre-Ramadan and post-Ramadan in people with overweight or obesity (−1.46 (95% confidence interval: −2.57 to −0.35) %, p = 0.010), but not in those of normal weight (−0.41 (−1.45 to 0.63) %, p = 0.436). Loss of fat-free mass was also significant between pre-Ramadan and post-Ramadan, but was about 30% less than loss of absolute fat mass. At 2–5 weeks after the end of Ramadan, there was a return towards, or to, pre-Ramadan measurements in weight and body composition. Conclusions: Even with no advice on lifestyle changes, there are consistent—albeit transient—reductions in weight and fat mass with the Ramadan fast, especially in people with overweight or obesity.

Human metabolism and body composition: prospects for novel studies.

Type of study: systematic review

Number of citations: 5

Year: 2023

Authors: André Pontes-Silva, A. L. Lopes, E. Maciel, Fernando Rodrigues Peixoto Quaresma, A. V. Dibai-Filho

Journal: Nutrition reviews

Journal ranking: Q1

Key takeaways: Alternate-day fasting and time-restricted feeding both influence metabolism and gut microbiota, with differences in their mechanisms and effects on body composition.

Abstract: CONTEXT Most articles on gut microbiota argue the importance of body composition assessment in patients; however, body composition assessments are fragile (ie, with methodological limitations) in the most recent studies. OBJECTIVE To present two suggestions for further research using the human body composition assessment. METHODS The methods used in this study are based on a Pinto et al article published in Nutrition Reviews. DATA EXTRACTION On the basis of data. obtained from the PubMed, SCOPUS, LILACS, and Web of Science databases, Pinto et al provided a current survey of intermittent fasting protocols and an understanding of the outcomes to date in terms of the profile of the intestinal microbiota in obese organisms. DATA ANALYSIS Of the 82 original articles identified from the databases, 35 were eliminated because of duplication and 32 were excluded for not meeting the inclusion criteria. Two additional articles found in a new search were added, yielding a total of 17 studies to be included in this review. Among the protocols, alternate-day fasting and time-restricted feeding were the most common, and they were shown to have different mechanisms of metabolic signaling. Time-restricted feeding influences body mass control and biochemical parameters by regulating the circadian system and improving satiety control systems by acting on leptin secretion. In contrast, alternate-day fasting leads to a reduction of ±75% of all energy consumption regardless of dietary composition, in addition to promoting hormonal adjustments that promote body mass control. Furthermore, both protocols could remodel the intestinal microbiota by changing the Firmicutes to Bacteroidetes ratio and increasing the abundance of strains such as Lactobacillus spp. and Akkermansia that have a protective effect on metabolism against the effects of body mass gain. CONCLUSION Changes in adipose tissue (eg, body mass loss, control, gain) should be interpreted via the sum of skinfolds in absolute values, waist perimeter, and patients' body proportionality, because fat is just a fraction of the adipocyte (lipid).

Effects of Ramadan and Non-ramadan Intermittent Fasting on Body Composition: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis

Type of study: meta-analysis

Number of citations: 37

Year: 2021

Authors: Joana M Correia, I. Santos, P. Pezarat-Correia, A. Silva, G. Mendonca

Journal: Frontiers in Nutrition

Journal ranking: Q1

Key takeaways: Non-Ramadan intermittent fasting is more effective in improving overall body composition than Ramadan fasting, with both methods showing beneficial weight management adaptations.

Abstract: Intermittent fasting (IF) has gained popularity for body-composition improvement purposes. The aim of this systematic review and meta-analysis was to summarize the effects of Ramadan vs. non-Ramadan IF on parameters of body composition. We conducted a comprehensive search of peer-reviewed articles in three electronic databases: PubMed, Scopus, and Web of Science (published until May 2020). Studies were selected if they included samples of adults (≥18 years), had an experimental or observational design, investigated any type of IF and included body composition outcomes. Meta-analytical procedures were conducted when feasible. Sixty-six articles met the eligibility criteria. We found that non-Ramadan IF is effective for decreasing body weight (−0.341 (95% CI [−0.584, −0.098], p = 0.006), body mass index (−0.699, 95% CI [−1.05, −0.347], p < 0.001), and absolute fat mass (−0.447, 95% CI [−0.673, −0.221], p < 0.001). When contrasting pre- post-intervention data on fat-free mass between treatments and controls, group-differences were non-significant (p > 0.05). Conversely, we observed a significant increase in fat-free mass when comparing pre- to post-intervention in a within design fashion (0.306, 95% CI [0.133, 0.48], p = 0.001). Finally, despite being accompanied by dehydration, Ramadan IF is effective in decreasing body weight (−0.353; 95% CI [−0.651, −0.054], p = 0.02) and relative fat mass (−0.533; 95% CI [−1.025, −0.04], p = 0.034). Ramadan IF seems to implicate some beneficial adaptations in weight management, although non-Ramadan IF appears to be more effective in improving overall body composition.

Combined versus independent effects of exercise training and intermittent fasting on body composition and cardiometabolic health in adults: a systematic review and meta-analysis

Type of study: meta-analysis

Number of citations: 16

Year: 2024

Authors: M. Khalafi, Michael E. Symonds, Aref Habibi Maleki, M. Sakhaei, Mahsa Ehsanifar, S. K. Rosenkranz

Journal: Nutrition Journal

Journal ranking: Q1

Key takeaways: Combining exercise training and intermittent fasting leads to superior body composition changes but no additive or synergistic effects on cardiometabolic health markers.

Abstract: Abstract Introduction and aim Exercise training (Ex) and intermittent fasting (IF) are effective for improving body composition and cardiometabolic health overweight and obese adults, but whether combining Ex and IF induces additive or synergistic effects is less well established. We therefore, performed a systematic review and meta-analysis to compare the combined versus independent effects of Ex and IF on body composition and cardiometabolic health in adults. Method An electronic search was conducted in three main online databases including PubMed, Web of Science, and Scopus, from inception to March 9, 2023 for studies involving Ex plus IF trials versus standalone Ex and/or IF interventions in adults. Interventions had a duration of ≥ 2 weeks. Standardized (SMD) or weighted mean differences (WMD) and 95% confidence intervals were calculated in order to compare effects on body weight, body mass index (BMI), body fat lean body mass (LBM), visceral fat, and waist circumference. For cardiometabolic health, outcomes included fasting glucose, insulin, total cholesterol (TC), low-density lipoprotein cholesterol (LDL), triglycerides (TG), high-density lipoprotein cholesterol (HDL), systolic (SBP) and diastolic (DBP) blood pressure, and VO 2 max/peak. Results Ex plus IF decreased body weight [WMD: -3.03 kg (95% CI: -3.44 to -2.61), p = 0.001], BMI [WMD: -1.12 kg.m 2 (95% CI: -1.28 to -0.95), p = 0.001], body fat [SMD: -0.72 (95% CI: -1.23 to -0.21), p = 0.005], visceral fat [SMD: -0.34 (95% CI: -0.63 to -0.05), p = 0.01], and waist circumference [WMD: -2.63 cm (95% CI: -4.16 to -1.11), p = 0.001] more than Ex alone. However, changes in body composition and cardiometabolic health markers were not significantly different for Ex plus IF when compared with IF alone, with the exception of VO 2 max/peak [SMD: 0.55 (95% CI: 0.14 to 0.97), p = 0.009]. Conclusion We demonstrate that a combination of Ex and IF produces superior changes in body composition, but not in markers of cardiometabolic health when compared with Ex or IF alone. Ex plus IF could therefore be effective for weight and fat loss but has no additive or synergistic effects for other cardiometabolic health markers.

Ramadan model of intermittent fasting for 28 d had no major effect on body composition, glucose metabolism, or cognitive functions in healthy lean men.

Type of study: rct

Number of citations: 81

Year: 2017

Authors: N. Harder-Lauridsen, A. Rosenberg, F. Benatti, J. Damm, C. Thomsen, Erik Lykke Mortensen, B. Pedersen, R. Krogh-Madsen

Journal: Nutrition

Journal ranking: Q2

Key takeaways: Ramadan model of intermittent fasting for 28 days had minimal impact on body mass index and no effects on body composition, glucose metabolism, or cognitive function in healthy lean men.