Intense training before bed

One night of partial sleep deprivation impairs recovery from a single exercise training session

Type of study: rct

Number of citations: 55

Year: 2017

Authors: D. Rae, Tayla Chin, Kagiso Dikgomo, Lee Hill, A. Mckune, T. Kohn, L. Roden

Journal: European Journal of Applied Physiology

Journal ranking: Q1

Key takeaways: One night of partial sleep deprivation impairs recovery from a single high-intensity interval training session in cyclists, affecting performance, motivation, and blood pressure.

Abstract: PurposeThe effects of sleep deprivation on physical performance are well documented, but data on the consequence of sleep deprivation on recovery from exercise are limited. The aim was to compare cyclists’ recovery from a single bout of high-intensity interval training (HIIT) after which they were given either a normal night of sleep (CON, 7.56 ± 0.63 h) or half of their usual time in bed (DEP, 3.83 ± 0.33 h).MethodsIn this randomized cross-over intervention study, 16 trained male cyclists (age 32 ± 7 years), relative peak power output (PPO 4.6 ± 0.7 W kg^−1) performed a HIIT session at ±18:00 followed by either the CON or DEP sleep condition. Recovery from the HIIT session was assessed the following day by comparing pre-HIIT variables to those measured 12 and 24 h after the session. Following a 2-week washout, cyclists repeated the trial, but under the alternate sleep condition.ResultsPPO was reduced more 24 h after the HIIT session in the DEP (ΔPPO −0.22 ± 0.22 W kg^−1; range −0.75 to 0.1 W kg^−1) compared to the CON condition (ΔPPO −0.05 ± 0.09 W kg^−1, range −0.19 to 0.17 W kg^−1, p = 0.008, d = −2.16). Cyclists were sleepier (12 h: p = 0.002, d = 1.90; 24 h: p = 0.001, d = 1.41) and felt less motivated to train (12 h, p = 0.012, d = −0.89) during the 24 h recovery phase when the HIIT session was followed by the DEP condition. The exercise-induced 24 h reduction in systolic blood pressure observed in the CON condition was absent in the DEP condition (p = 0.039, d = 0.75).ConclusionsOne night of partial sleep deprivation impairs recovery from a single HIIT session in cyclists. Further research is needed to understand the mechanisms behind this observation.

The effects of evening high-intensity exercise on sleep in healthy adults: A systematic review and meta-analysis.

Type of study: meta-analysis

Number of citations: 44

Year: 2021

Authors: E. Frimpong, M. Mograss, T. Zvionow, Dang-Vu Thanh Thien

Journal: Sleep medicine reviews

Journal ranking: Q1

Key takeaways: Acute evening high-intensity exercise performed 2-4 hours before bedtime does not disrupt nighttime sleep in healthy young and middle-aged adults.

Transcriptomic, proteomic and phosphoproteomic underpinnings of daily exercise performance and zeitgeber activity of training in mouse muscle

Type of study:

Number of citations: 29

Year: 2021

Authors: G. Maier, Julien Delezie, P. Westermark, G. Santos, Danilo Ritz, C. Handschin

Journal: The Journal of Physiology

Journal ranking: Q1

Key takeaways: Early daytime exercise improves endurance performance and triggers energy provisioning and tissue regeneration, while early night-time exercise activates stress-related and catabolic pathways, with limited effects on muscle and liver circadian clocks.

Abstract: Maximal endurance performance is greater in the early daytime. Timed exercise differentially alters the muscle transcriptome and (phospho)‐proteome. Early daytime exercise triggers energy provisioning and tissue regeneration. Early night‐time exercise activates stress‐related and catabolic pathways. Scheduled training has limited effects on the muscle and liver circadian clocks.

Effects of resistance training intensity on sleep quality and strength recovery in trained men: a randomized cross-over study

Type of study: rct

Number of citations: 9

Year: 2020

Authors: D. Ramos-Campo, L. M. Martínez-Aranda, Luis AndreuCaravaca, V. Ávila-Gandía, J. Rubio-Arias

Journal: Biology of Sport

Journal ranking: Q1

Key takeaways: Resistance training to failure negatively impacts strength recovery, while both failure and non-failure training sessions similarly affect sleep quality and heart rate variability.

Abstract: Resistance training (RT) variables can affect sleep quality, strength recovery and performance. The aim of this study was to examine the acute effect of RT leading to failure vs. non-failure on sleep quality (SQ), heart rate variability (HRV) overnight and one-repetition maximum (1-RM) performance 24 hours after training. Fifteen resistance-trained male athletes (age: 23.4 ± 2.4 years; height 178.0 ± 7.6 cm; weight: 78.2 ± 10.6 kg) performed two training sessions in a randomized order, leading to failure (4x10) or non-failure (5x8(10) repetitions), with 90 seconds for resting between sets at 75% 1-RM in bench press (BP) and half squat (HS). The day after, the participants completed the predicted 1-RM test for both exercises. In addition, the subjective and actigraphic SQ and HRV during sleep were measured after each training session. The day after the training protocol leading to failure, the 1-RM of BP (MD = 7.24 kg; -7.2%; p < 0.001) and HS (MD = 20.20 kg; -11.1%; p < 0.001) decreased. However, this parameter did not decrease after a non-failure RT session. No differences were observed between failure and non-failure training sessions on SQ and HRV; therefore, both types of training sessions similarly affected the SQ and the autonomic modulation during the night after the training session. This study provides an insight into the influence of different training strategies on SQ, strength performance and recovery after moderate- to high-demand training. This information could be useful especially for professional coaches, weightlifters and bodybuilders, due to the potential influence on the programming processes.

Exercise Training Attenuates the Muscle Mitochondria Genomic Response to Bed Rest

Type of study: rct

Number of citations: 0

Year: 2024

Authors: Joshua A. Cotter, Abel Plaza-Florido, Gregory R Adams, F. Haddad, Jessica M Scott, Meghan Everett, Lori Ploutz-Snyder, S. Radom-Aizik

Journal: Medicine & Science in Sports & Exercise

Journal ranking: Q1

Key takeaways: Exercise training can partially counteract the negative effects of long-term bed rest on muscle mitochondrial gene expression, but does not fully counteract all the molecular consequences.

Abstract: ABSTRACT Purpose Exercise training during the National Aeronautics and Space Administration 70-d bed rest study effectively counteracted the decline in aerobic capacity, muscle mass, strength, and endurance. We aimed to characterize the genomic response of the participants’ vastus lateralis on day 64 of bed rest with and without exercise countermeasures. Methods Twenty-two healthy young males were randomized into three groups: 1) bed rest only (n = 7), 2) bed rest + aerobic (6 d·wk−1) and resistance training (3 d·wk−1) on standard equipment (n = 7), and 3) bed rest + aerobic and resistance training using a flywheel device (n = 8). The vastus lateralis gene and microRNA microarrays were analyzed using GeneSpring GX 14.9.1 (Agilent Technologies, Palo Alto, CA). Results Bed rest significantly altered the expression of 2113 annotated genes in at least one out of the three study groups (fold change (FC) > 1.2; P < 0.05). Interaction analysis revealed that exercise attenuated the bed rest effect of 511 annotated genes (FC = 1.2, P < 0.05). In the bed rest only group, a predominant downregulation of genes was observed, whereas in the two exercise groups, there was a notable attenuation or reversal of this effect, with no significant differences between the two exercise modalities. Enrichment analysis identified functional categories and gene pathways, many of them related to the mitochondria. In addition, bed rest significantly altered the expression of 35 microRNAs (FC > 1.2, P < 0.05) with no difference between the three groups. Twelve are known to regulate some of the mitochondrial-related genes that were altered following bed rest. Conclusions Mitochondrial gene expression was a significant component of the molecular response to long-term bed rest. Although exercise attenuated the FC in the downregulation of many genes, it did not completely counteract all the molecular consequences.

High-Intensity Jump Training Is Tolerated during 60 Days of Bed Rest and Is Very Effective in Preserving Leg Power and Lean Body Mass: An Overview of the Cologne RSL Study

Type of study: rct

Number of citations: 73

Year: 2017

Authors: A. Kramer, Jakob Kümmel, E. Mulder, A. Gollhofer, P. Frings-Meuthen, M. Gruber

Journal: PLoS ONE

Journal ranking: Q1

Key takeaways: High-intensity jump training effectively preserves leg power and lean body mass during 60 days of bed rest, while partially preventing cardiac deconditioning.

Abstract: Purpose Space agencies are looking for effective and efficient countermeasures for the degrading effects of weightlessness on the human body. The aim of this study was to assess the effects of a novel jump exercise countermeasure during bed rest on vitals, body mass, body composition, and jump performance. Methods 23 male participants (29±6 years, 181±6 cm, 77±7 kg) were confined to a bed rest facility for 90 days: a 15-day ambulatory measurement phase, a 60-day six-degree head-down-tilt bed rest phase (HDT), and a 15-day ambulatory recovery phase. Participants were randomly allocated to the jump training group (JUMP, n = 12) or the control group (CTRL, n = 11). A typical training session consisted of 4x10 countermovement jumps and 2x10 hops in a sledge jump system. The training group had to complete 5–6 sessions per week. Results Peak force for the reactive hops (3.6±0.4 kN) as well as jump height (35±4 cm) and peak power (3.1±0.2 kW) for the countermovement jumps could be maintained over the 60 days of HDT. Lean body mass decreased in CTRL but not in JUMP (-1.6±1.9 kg and 0±1.0 kg, respectively, interaction effect p = 0.03). Resting heart rate during recovery was significantly increased for CTRL but not for JUMP (interaction effect p<0.001). Conclusion Participants tolerated the near-daily high-intensity jump training and maintained high peak forces and high power output during 60 days of bed rest. The countermeasure was effective in preserving lean body mass and partly preventing cardiac deconditioning with only several minutes of training per day.

How does sleep help recovery from exercise-induced muscle injuries?

Type of study: literature review

Number of citations: 43

Year: 2021

Authors: M. Chennaoui, T. Vanneau, A. Trignol, P. Arnal, D. Gomez-Mérino, C. Baudot, Jesus Perez, Sebastiano Pochettino, C. Eirale, H. Chalabi

Journal: Journal of science and medicine in sport

Journal ranking: Q1

Key takeaways: Sleep extension may help accelerate recovery from exercise-induced muscle injuries by increasing local IGF-I and controlling local inflammation.

Aging-related effects of bed rest followed by eccentric exercise rehabilitation on skeletal muscle macrophages and insulin sensitivity

Type of study: non-rct experimental

Number of citations: 55

Year: 2017

Authors: P. Reidy, Catherine C. Lindsay, Alec I. McKenzie, C. Fry, M. Supiano, R. Marcus, P. LaStayo, M. Drummond

Journal: Experimental Gerontology

Journal ranking: Q1

Key takeaways: Exercise rehabilitation after bed rest modulates muscle macrophages, potentially promoting muscle regrowth/hypertrophy rather than insulin sensitivity in both young and older adults.

Effects of Cannabidiol Supplementation on Skeletal Muscle Regeneration after Intensive Resistance Training

Type of study: rct

Number of citations: 34

Year: 2020

Authors: E. Isenmann, S. Veit, Lynn Starke, U. Flenker, P. Diel

Journal: Nutrients

Journal ranking: Q1

Key takeaways: CBD supplementation shows small but significant effects on muscle damage and recovery of squat performance after 72 hours post-resistance training, but more data is needed for clearer conclusions.

Abstract: Cannabidiol supplements (CBD) are increasingly consumed by athletes to improve regeneration. However, the evidence for the pro-regenerative effects of CBD in sports is quite limited. Therefore, our aim was to investigate the effects of a single CBD supplementation in a six-arm placebo-controlled crossover study after resistance training on performance and muscle damage. Before and after the resistance training, one-repetition maximum in the back squat (1RM BS), countermovement jump (CMJ), and blood serum concentrations of creatine kinase (CK) and myoglobin (Myo) were measured in healthy, well-trained participants. 16 out of 21 participants completed the study and were included in the analysis. In 1RM BS, a significant decrease was observed after 24 h (p < 0.01) but not after 48 and 72 h. A significant group difference was detected after 72 h (p < 0.05; ES = 0.371). In CMJ, no significant changes were observed. The CK and Myo concentrations increased significantly after 24 h (CK: p < 0.001; Myo: p < 0.01), 48 h (CK: p < 0.001; Myo: p < 0.01) and 72 h (CK: p < 0.001; Myo: p < 0.001). After 72 h, significant group differences were observed for both muscle damage biomarkers (CK: p < 0.05 ES = 0.24; Myo: p < 0.05; ES = 0.21). The results show small but significant effects on muscle damage and recovery of squat performance after 72 h. However, more data are required for clearer statements concerning potential pro-regenerative effects of CBD supplementation after resistance training.

Evidence of disturbed sleep and mood state in well-trained athletes during short-term intensified training with and without a high carbohydrate nutritional intervention

Type of study: non-rct experimental

Number of citations: 82

Year: 2017

Authors: Sophie C. Killer, I. Svendsen, A. Jeukendrup, Michael Gleeson

Journal: Journal of Sports Sciences

Journal ranking: Q1

Key takeaways: Short-term intensified training in highly-trained cyclists leads to significant declines in sleep quality, mood state, and maximal exercise performance.

Abstract: ABSTRACT Few studies have investigated the effects of exercise training on sleep physiology in well-trained athletes. We investigated changes in sleep markers, mood state and exercise performance in well-trained cyclists undergoing short-term intensified training and carbohydrate nutritional intervention. Thirteen highly-trained male cyclists (age: 25 ± 6y, O2max: 72 ± 5 ml/kg/min) participated in two 9-day periods of intensified training while undergoing a high (HCHO) or moderate (CON) carbohydrate nutritional intervention before, during and after training sessions. Sleep was measured each night via wristwatch actigraphy. Mood state questionnaires were completed daily. Performance was assessed with maximal oxygen uptake (. Percentage sleep time fell during intensified training (87.9 ± 1.5 to 82.5 ± 2.3%; p < 0.05) despite an increase in time in bed (456 ± 50 to 509 ± 48 min; p = 0.02). Sleep efficiency decreased during intensified training (83.1 ± 5.3 to 77.8 ± 8.6%; p < 0.05). Actual sleep time was significantly higher in CON than HCHO throughout intensified training. Mood disturbance increased during intensified training and was higher in CON than HCHO (p < 0.05). Performance in the exercise protocol fell significantly with intensified training. The main findings of this study were that 9-days of intensified training in highly-trained cyclists resulted in significant and progressive declines in sleep quality, mood state and maximal exercise performance.

Exercise-induced changes in brain activity during memory encoding and retrieval after long-term bed rest

Type of study: rct

Number of citations: 26

Year: 2020

Authors: Anika Friedl-Werner, Katharina Brauns, H. Gunga, S. Kühn, A. Stahn

Journal: NeuroImage

Journal ranking: Q1

Key takeaways: High-intensity interval training improves neuronal efficiency during memory encoding and retrieval after long-term bed rest, potentially counteracting the dysfunctional mechanisms caused by physical inactivity.

A single bout of prior resistance exercise attenuates muscle atrophy and declines in myofibrillar protein synthesis during bed‐rest in older men

Type of study: non-rct experimental

Number of citations: 9

Year: 2023

Authors: Benoit Smeuninx, Yasir S. Elhassan, E. Sapey, Alison B Rushton, Paul T. Morgan, Marie Korzepa, Archie E. Belfield, A. Philp, M. Brook, N. Gharahdaghi, D. Wilkinson, Ken Smith, P. Atherton, L. Breen

Journal: The Journal of Physiology

Journal ranking: Q1

Key takeaways: A single bout of resistance exercise before bed-rest can reduce muscle atrophy and decline in myofibrillar protein synthesis in older men.

Abstract: Impairments in myofibrillar protein synthesis (MyoPS) during bed rest accelerate skeletal muscle loss in older adults, increasing the risk of adverse secondary health outcomes. We investigated the effect of prior resistance exercise (RE) on MyoPS and muscle morphology during a disuse event in 10 healthy older men (65–80 years). Participants completed a single bout of unilateral leg RE the evening prior to 5 days of in‐patient bed‐rest. Quadriceps cross‐sectional area (CSA) was determined prior to and following bed‐rest. Serial muscle biopsies and dual stable isotope tracers were used to determine rates of integrated MyoPS (iMyoPS) over a 7 day habitual ‘free‐living’ phase and the bed‐rest phase, and rates of acute postabsorptive and postprandial MyoPS (aMyoPS) at the end of bed rest. Quadriceps CSA at 40%, 60% and 80% of muscle length significantly decreased in exercised (EX) and non‐exercised control (CTL) legs with bed‐rest. The decline in quadriceps CSA at 40% and 60% of muscle length was attenuated in EX compared with CTL. During bed‐rest, iMyoPS rates decreased from habitual values in CTL, but not EX, and were significantly different between legs. Postprandial aMyoPS rates increased above postabsorptive values in EX only. The change in iMyoPS over bed‐rest correlated with the change in quadriceps CSA in CTL, but not EX. A single bout of RE attenuated the decline in iMyoPS rates and quadriceps atrophy with 5 days of bed‐rest in older men. Further work is required to understand the functional and clinical implications of prior RE in older patient populations.

Mitochondrial Adaptations in Elderly and Young Men Skeletal Muscle Following 2 Weeks of Bed Rest and Rehabilitation

Type of study: non-rct experimental

Number of citations: 46

Year: 2019

Authors: A. Buso, M. Comelli, Raffaella Picco, M. Isola, Benedetta Magnesa, R. Pišot, J. Rittweger, D. Salvadego, B. Šimunič, B. Grassi, I. Mavelli

Journal: Frontiers in Physiology

Journal ranking: Q2

Key takeaways: Elderly individuals experience greater impact of bed-rest on mitochondrial biogenesis and recovery, with exercise counteracting the negative effects of immobility.

Abstract: The aim of the study was to evaluate the expression levels of proteins related to mitochondrial biogenesis regulation and bioenergetics in vastus lateralis muscle biopsies from 16 elderly and 7 young people subjected to 14 days of bed-rest, causing atrophy, and subsequent 14 days of exercise training. Based on quantitative immunoblot analyses, in both groups a reduction of two key regulators of mitochondrial biogenesis/remodeling and activity, namely PGC-1α and Sirt3, was revealed during bed-rest, with a subsequent up-regulation after rehabilitation, indicating an involvement of PGC-1α-Sirt3 axis in response to the treatments. A difference was observed comparing the young and elderly subjects as, for both proteins, the abundance in the elderly was more affected by immobility and less responsive to exercise. The expression levels of TOM20 and Citrate Synthase, assayed as markers of outer mitochondrial membrane and mitochondrial mass, showed a noticeable sensitivity in the elderly group, where they were affected by bed-rest and rehabilitation recalling the pattern of PGC-1α. TOM20 and CS remained unchanged in young subjects. Single OXPHOS complexes showed peculiar patterns, which were in some cases dissimilar from PGC-1α, and suggest different influences on protein biogenesis and degradation. Overall, exercise was capable to counteract the effect of immobility, when present, except for complex V, which was markedly downregulated by bed-rest, but remained unaffected after rehabilitation, maybe as result of greater extent of degradation processes over biogenesis. Phosphorylation extent of AMPK, and its upstream activator LKB1, did not change after bed-rest and rehabilitation in either young or elderly subjects, suggesting that the activation of energy-sensing LKB1-AMPK signaling pathway was “missed” due to its transient nature, or was not triggered under our conditions. Our study demonstrates that, as far as the expression of various proteins related to mitochondrial biogenesis/remodeling, adaptations to bed-rest and rehabilitation in the two populations were different. The impact of bed-rest was greater in the elderly subjects, where the pattern (decrease after bed rest and recovery following rehabilitation) was accompanied by changes of mitochondrial mass. Modifications of protein abundance were matched with data obtained from gene expression analyses of four public human datasets focusing on related genes.

Pre-Bed Casein Protein Supplementation Does Not Enhance Acute Functional Recovery in Physically Active Males and Females When Exercise is Performed in the Morning

Type of study: non-rct experimental

Number of citations: 14

Year: 2018

Authors: Eva Apweiler, David Wallace, Sarah Stansfield, D. Allerton, Meghan A. Brown, E. Stevenson, Tom Clifford

Journal: Sports

Journal ranking: Q1

Key takeaways: Pre-bed casein protein supplementation does not enhance acute recovery in physically active males and females when exercise is performed in the morning.

Abstract: This study examined whether consuming casein protein (CP) pre-sleep could accelerate acute recovery following muscle-damaging exercise. Thirty-nine active males and females performed 100 drop jumps in the morning, consumed their habitual diet during the day, and then within 30 min pre-bed consumed either ~40 g of CP (n = 19) or ~40 g of a carbohydrate-only control (CON) (n = 20). Maximal isometric voluntary contractions (MIVC), countermovement jumps (CMJ), pressure-pain threshold (PPT), subjective muscle soreness and the brief assessment of mood adapted (BAM+) were measured pre, 24 and 48 h following the drop jumps. MIVC decreased in CP and CON post-exercise, peaking at 24 h post (CP: −8.5 ± 3.5 vs. CON: −13.0 ± 2.9%, respectively); however, no between-group differences were observed (p = 0.486; ηp2 =0.02). There were also no group differences in the recovery of CMJ height, PPT and BAM+ (p > 0.05). Subjective muscle soreness increased post-exercise, but no group differences were present at 24 h (CP: 92 ± 31 mm vs. CON: 90 ± 46 mm) or 48 h (CP: 90 ± 44 mm vs. CON: 80 ± 58 mm) (p > 0.05). These data suggest that pre-bed supplementation with ~40 g of CP is no more beneficial than CON for accelerating the recovery following muscle-damaging exercise.

Effects of Bed Rest on Physical Performance in Athletes: A Systematic and Narrative Review

Type of study: systematic review

Number of citations: 3

Year: 2023

Authors: B. Spiering, J. Weakley, I. Mujika

Journal: Sports Medicine (Auckland, N.z.)

Journal ranking: Q1

Key takeaways: Bed rest rapidly decreases endurance performance in athletes, with fluid/salt supplementation potentially protecting against decrements, and athletes require 2-4 weeks of progressive rehabilitation after bed rest.

Abstract: Athletes can face scenarios in which they are confined to bed rest (e.g., due to injury or illness). Existing research in otherwise healthy individuals indicates that those entering bed rest with the greatest physical performance level might experience the greatest performance decrements, which indirectly suggests that athletes might be more susceptible to the detrimental consequences of bed rest than general populations. Therefore, a comprehensive understanding of the effects of bed rest might help guide the medical care of athletes during and following bed rest.This systematic and narrative review aimed to (1) establish the evidence for the effects of bed rest on physical performance in athletes; (2) discuss potential countermeasures to offset these negative consequences; and (3) identify the time-course of recovery following bed rest to guide return-to-sport rehabilitation.This review was performed using the Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses (PRISMA) guidelines. Four databases were searched (SPORTDiscus, Web of Science, Scopus, and MEDLINE/PubMed) in October of 2022, and studies were included if they were peer-reviewed investigations, written in English, and investigated the effects of horizontal bed rest on changes in physical capacities and qualities in athletes (defined as Tier 3-5 participants). The reporting quality of the research was assessed using a modified version of the Downs & Black checklist. Furthermore, findings from studies that involved participants in Tiers 1-2 were presented and synthesized using a narrative approach.Our systematic review of the literature using a rigorous criterion of 'athletes' revealed zero scientific publications. Nevertheless, as a by-product of our search, seven studies were identified that involved apparently healthy individuals who performed specific exercise training prior to bed rest.Based on the limited evidence from studies involving non-athletes who were otherwise healthy prior to bed rest, we generally conclude that (1) bed rest rapidly (within 3 days) decreases upright endurance exercise performance, likely due to a rapid loss in plasma volume; whereas strength is reduced within 5 days, likely due to neural factors as well as muscle atrophy; (2) fluid/salt supplementation may be an effective countermeasure to protect against decrements in endurance performance during bed rest; while a broader array of potentially effective countermeasures exists, the efficacy of these countermeasures for previously exercise-trained individuals requires further study; and (3) athletes likely require at least 2-4 weeks of progressive rehabilitation following bed rest of ≤ 28 days, although the timeline of recovery might need to be extended depending on the underlying reason for bed rest (e.g., injury or illness). Despite these general conclusions from studies involving non-athletes, our primary conclusion is that substantial effort and research is still required to quantify the effects of bed rest on physical performance, identify effective countermeasures, and provide return-to-sport timelines in bona fide athletes.Registration ID: osf.io/d3aew; Date: October 24, 2022.

The effectiveness of cryostimulation exposure on sleep and recovery in male athletes: Timing considerations

Type of study: rct

Number of citations: 0

Year: 2024

Authors: C. Arc-Chagnaud, Benoit Dugué, R. Bouzigon, Robin Pla, Laurent Bosquet, O. Dupuy

Journal: European Journal of Sport Science

Journal ranking: Q1

Key takeaways: Whole-body cryostimulation after intense evening training improves sleep and recovery, with the most significant benefits occurring 1 hour before bedtime.

Abstract: Abstract The objectives of the study were (i) to evaluate the effects of whole‐body cryostimulation (WBC) after training as an effective tool to improve sleep and recovery and (ii) to determine which exposure schedule for WBC (immediately after training vs. 1h before bedtime) is the most appropriate to improve sleep and recovery. Twenty‐two well‐trained male athletes or triathletes (23.1 ± 3.5‐years) were recruited in this controlled crossover protocol. Each participant completed the three experimental sessions, each composed of a running training session and one night of sleep analysis. Depending on the experimental condition, subjects were exposed—or not (CONT)—to WBC immediately after training (CRYO 7 p.m.) or 1h before going to bed (CRYO 10 p.m.). All participants were randomly assigned to each condition, spaced seven days apart. Sleep was monitored via actimetry, cerebral activity recordings, heart rate variability, body core temperature, and perceptual measurements. WBC after training did not modify subjective or objective sleep parameters compared to the control condition. However, WBC significantly improved cardiac parasympathetic activity. More specifically, it was more activated during the night following the CRYO 10 p.m. condition than in the other experimental conditions. Core body temperature (CBT) 1h after bedtime was the lowest in the CRYO 10 p.m. condition. This study confirmed the effectiveness of WBC as a recovery technique after intense evening training. We suggest that WBC may exhibit the most significant benefit on recovery if the session is performed 1h before bedtime, acting on subsequent parasympathetic activation and CBT drop.

Influence of short-term chronic oral cannabidiol application on muscle recovery and performance after an intensive training protocol - a randomized double-blind crossover study

Type of study: rct

Number of citations: 7

Year: 2024

Authors: E. Isenmann, Sebastian Veit, Ulrich Flenker, Alessio Lesch, Dirk W Lachenmeier, Patrick Diel

Journal: Journal of the International Society of Sports Nutrition

Journal ranking: Q1

Key takeaways: CBD oil may reduce muscle damage and inflammation in advanced athletes, but both CBD products show no clear effects on performance or inflammatory parameters.

Abstract: ABSTRACT Background Rapid regeneration after intense exercise is essential for competitive athletes. Based on this assumption, supplementation strategies, focusing on food supplements, are increasing to improve the recovery processes. One such supplement is cannabidiol (CBD) which is gaining more attention in competitive sports. However, the evidence is still lacking and there are no data available about the effect of a short-term chronic application. Methods A three-arm double-blind cross-over study was conducted to determine the effects of two different CBD products on performance, muscle damage and inflammatory processes in well-trained athletes. In total 17 subjects took successfully part in this study. Each subject underwent the six-day, high-intensity training protocol three times. After each training session, each subject took either a placebo or a CBD product (60 mg of oil or solubilisate). Between the intervention phases, at least four weeks of washout period was conducted. Before and after the training protocols the performance capacity in countermovement jump (CMJ), back squat (BS), bench press (BP) and 1-mile run were measured and biomarkers for muscle damage (creatine kinase, myoglobin), inflammatory processes (interleukin 6 and 10) and immune cell activity (ratios of neutrophil granulocytes, lymphocytes and, platelets) were analyzed. For statistical analyses, the current version of R and a linear mixed model was used. Results It could identify different effects of the training protocol depending on performance level (advanced or highly advanced athletes) (p < .05). Regardless of the performance level, muscle damage and a reduction in performance could be induced by the training protocol. Only CBD oil was associated with a reduction in myoglobin concentration (p < .05) in advanced athletes. Concerning immune activity, a significant decrease in platelets lymphocyte ratios was observed in advanced athletes after placebo treatment (p < .05). CBD oil application showed a slight inhibitory effect (p < .10). Moreover, the reduction in performance differs between the performance levels. A significant decrease in CMJ was observed in advanced athletes and a decreasing trend in BS was observed in highly advanced athletes after placebo treatment (p < 0.10). Both CBD products do not affect performance parameters. For inflammatory parameters, no effects were observed. Conclusion It was found that the performance level of the subjects was a decisive factor and that they responded differently to the training protocol and the CBD application. However, no clear effects of either CBD product were found and further research is needed to identify the long-term effects of CBD application.

Greater loss in muscle mass and function but smaller metabolic alterations in older compared with younger men following 2 wk of bed rest and recovery.

Type of study: non-rct experimental

Number of citations: 123

Year: 2016

Authors: R. Pišot, U. Marušič, G. Biolo, S. Mazzucco, S. Lazzer, B. Grassi, C. Reggiani, L. Toniolo, P. D. di Prampero, A. Passaro, M. Narici, Shahid Mohammed, J. Rittweger, M. Gasparini, M. Gabrijelčič Blenkuš, B. Šimunič

Journal: Journal of applied physiology

Journal ranking: Q1

Key takeaways: Older men experience greater muscle loss and function loss after bed rest, while younger men experience smaller metabolic alterations and slower recovery.

Abstract: This investigation aimed to compare the response of young and older adult men to bed rest (BR) and subsequent rehabilitation (R). Sixteen older (OM, age 55-65 yr) and seven young (YM, age 18-30 yr) men were exposed to a 14-day period of BR followed by 14 days of R. Quadriceps muscle volume (QVOL), force (QF), and explosive power (QP) of leg extensors; single-fiber isometric force (Fo); peak aerobic power (V̇o2peak); gait stride length; and three metabolic parameters, Matsuda index of insulin sensitivity, postprandial lipid curve, and homocysteine plasma level, were measured before and after BR and after R. Following BR, QVOL was smaller in OM (-8.3%) than in YM (-5.7%,P= 0.031); QF (-13.2%,P= 0.001), QP (-12.3%,P= 0.001), and gait stride length (-9.9%,P= 0.002) were smaller only in OM. Fo was significantly smaller in both YM (-32.0%) and OM (-16.4%) without significant differences between groups. V̇o2peakdecreased more in OM (-15.3%) than in YM (-7.6%,P< 0.001). Instead, the Matsuda index fell to a greater extent in YM than in OM (-46.0% vs. -19.8%, respectively,P= 0.003), whereas increases in postprandial lipid curve (+47.2%,P= 0.013) and homocysteine concentration (+26.3%,P= 0.027) were observed only in YM. Importantly, after R, the recovery of several parameters, among them QVOL, QP, and V̇o2peak, was not complete in OM, whereas Fo did not recover in either age group. The results show that the effect of inactivity on muscle mass and function is greater in OM, whereas metabolic alterations are greater in YM. Furthermore, these findings show that the recovery of preinactivity conditions is slower in OM.

High-intensity interval training, but not Spirulina supplementation, changes muscle regeneration signaling proteins in aged rats with obesity and diabetes

Type of study: rct

Number of citations: 0

Year: 2024

Authors: R. Askari, Marzieh Sadat Azarniveh, Amir hossein Haghighi, H. Shahrabadi, Paulo Gentil

Journal: European Journal of Translational Myology

Journal ranking: Q3

Key takeaways: HIIT alone significantly impacts muscle regeneration in aged rats with obesity and diabetes, while Spirulina supplementation only enhances this effect when combined with HIIT.

Abstract: This study aimed to investigate changes in protein signaling associated with muscle regeneration in aged rats with obesity and diabetes following high-intensity interval training (HIIT) and SP supplementation. Forty male Wistar rats weighting 280-325 g were used in this study. Obesity was induced by eight weeks of a high-fat diet, and diabetes was induced by intraperitoneal injection of 40 mg/kg streptozocin. Rats were randomly divided into control (CON), sham, SP, HIIT, and HIIT+SP groups. HIIT was performed five times per week during the 8-week period. SP dose was 50 mg/kg. Real-time PCR was used to evaluate the expression of myogenin, MyoD1, and Pax7. The decreases in body mass in the HIIT, HIIT+SP and SP groups were significantly higher than those in the sham and CON groups (p=0.0001). The soleus muscle mass increased significantly only in the HIIT and HIIT+SP groups (p<0.01). HIIT+SP improved fasting blood glucose and insulin levels more than HIIT alone and SP (p<0.05), while HIIT increased the expression levels of myogenic factors more than other groups (p=0.0001). In conclusion HIIT alone had a significant impact on myogenic factors, whereas Spirulina had an effect only when combined with HIIT.

REM sleep deprivation impairs muscle regeneration in rats

Type of study: rct

Number of citations: 29

Year: 2017

Authors: M. Mônico-Neto, Murilo Dáttilo, D. Ribeiro, K. Lee, M. D. de Mello, S. Tufik, H. K. Antunes

Journal: Growth Factors

Journal ranking: Q3

Key takeaways: REM sleep deprivation impairs muscle regeneration in rats, reducing muscular IGF-1 levels, and sleep recovery can restore these levels but does not fully normalize muscle regeneration.

Abstract: Abstract Introduction: The aim was observe the influence of sleep deprivation (SD) and sleep recovery on muscle regeneration process in rats submitted to cryolesion. Methods: Thirty-two Wistar rats were randomly allocated in four groups: control (CTL), SD for 96 h (SD96), control plus sleep recovery period (CTL + R) and SD96h plus 96 h of sleep recovery (SD96 + R). The animals were submitted to muscle injury by cryolesioning, after to SD and sleep recovery. Results: The major outcomes of this study were the reduction of muscular IGF-1 in both legs (injured and uninjured) and a delay in muscle regeneration process of animals submitted to SD compared to animals that slept, with increase connective tissue, inflammatory infiltrate and minor muscle fibers. Conclusions: SD impairs muscle regeneration in rats, moreover reduces muscular IGF-1 and sleep recovery was able to restore it to basal levels, but it was not enough to normalize the muscle regeneration.

Effects of Evening Exercise on Sleep in Healthy Participants: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis

Type of study: meta-analysis

Number of citations: 139

Year: 2018

Authors: Jan Stutz, R. Eiholzer, C. Spengler

Journal: Sports Medicine

Journal ranking: Q1

Key takeaways: Evening exercise does not negatively affect sleep; in fact, it may improve sleep quality, but vigorous exercise within an hour of bedtime may impair sleep-onset latency, total sleep time, and sleep efficiency.

Abstract: BackgroundCurrent recommendations advise against exercising in the evening because of potential adverse effects on sleep.ObjectivesThe aim of this systematic review was to investigate the extent to which evening exercise affects sleep and whether variables such as exercise intensity or duration modify the response.MethodsA systematic search was performed in PubMed, Cochrane, EMBASE, PsycINFO, and CINAHL databases. Studies evaluating sleep after a single session of evening physical exercise compared to a no-exercise control in healthy adults were included. All analyses are based on random effect models.ResultsThe search yielded 11,717 references, of which 23 were included. Compared to control, evening exercise significantly increased rapid eye movement latency (+ 7.7 min; p = 0.032) and slow-wave sleep (+ 1.3 percentage points [pp]; p = 0.041), while it decreased stage 1 sleep (− 0.9 pp; p = 0.001). Moderator analyses revealed that a higher temperature at bedtime was associated with lower sleep efficiency (SE) (b = − 11.6 pp; p = 0.020) and more wake after sleep onset (WASO; b = + 37.6 min; p = 0.0495). A higher level of physical stress (exercise intensity relative to baseline physical activity) was associated with lower SE (− 3.2 pp; p = 0.036) and more WASO (+ 21.9 min; p = 0.044). Compared to cycling, running was associated with less WASO (− 12.7 min; p = 0.037). All significant moderating effects disappeared after removal of one study.ConclusionOverall, the studies reviewed here do not support the hypothesis that evening exercise negatively affects sleep, in fact rather the opposite. However, sleep-onset latency, total sleep time, and SE might be impaired after vigorous exercise ending ≤ 1 h before bedtime.

Sleep onset is disrupted following pre-sleep exercise that causes large physiological excitement at bedtime

Type of study: non-rct experimental

Number of citations: 80

Year: 2014

Authors: Shiro Oda, K. Shirakawa

Journal: European Journal of Applied Physiology

Journal ranking: Q1

Key takeaways: Pre-sleep vigorous exercise, which causes large physiological excitement at bedtime, may disrupt sleep onset.

Abstract: PurposeMany studies have failed to show that pre-sleep exercise has a negative effect on sleep onset. However, since only a moderate level of physiological excitement was observed at bedtime in these studies, it remains unclear whether a larger magnitude of physiologic excitement present at bedtime would disrupt sleep onset. This study compared the effects of pre-sleep exercise, which led to different levels of physiologic excitement at bedtime (moderate and heavy), on sleep onset.MethodsTwelve active young men underwent non-exercise, moderate-intensity exercise, and high-intensity exercise conditions. The subjects maintained a sedentary condition on a reclining seat throughout the day. On the non-exercise day, the subjects remained seated at rest until going to bed. On the moderate- and high-intensity exercise days, the subject exercised for 40 min (21:20–22:00) at 60 and 80 % heart rate reserve, respectively. Sleep polysomnography, core body and skin temperatures, heart rate (HR), and heart rate variability (HRV) were recorded.ResultsWe observed a delay in sleep onset (+14.0 min, P < 0.05), a marked physiological excitement at bedtime as reflected by an increased HR (+25.7 bpm, P < 0.01), and a lower high-frequency power of HRV (−590 ms^2, P < 0.01) only on the high-intensity exercise day.ConclusionsThese results indicate that pre-sleep vigorous exercise, which causes a large physiologic excitement at bedtime, might disrupt the onset of sleep.

Sleep or swim? Early-morning training severely restricts the amount of sleep obtained by elite swimmers

Type of study: non-rct experimental

Number of citations: 240

Year: 2014

Authors: C. Sargent, S. Halson, G. Roach

Journal: European Journal of Sport Science

Journal ranking: Q1

Key takeaways: Early-morning training sessions severely restrict the amount of sleep obtained by elite athletes, potentially limiting the effectiveness of their training.

Abstract: Abstract Good sleep is essential for optimal performance, yet few studies have examined the sleep/wake behaviour of elite athletes. The aim of this study was to assess the impact of early-morning training on the amount of sleep obtained by world-class swimmers. A squad of seven swimmers from the Australian Institute of Sport participated in this study during 14 days of high-intensity training in preparation for the 2008 Olympic Games. During these 14 days, participants had 12 training days, each starting with a session at 06:00 h, and 2 rest days. For each day, the amount of sleep obtained by participants was determined using self-report sleep diaries and wrist-worn activity monitors. On nights that preceded training days, participants went to bed at 22:05 h (s=00:52), arose at 05:48 h (s=00:24) and obtained 5.4 h (s=1.3) of sleep. On nights that preceded rest days, participants went to bed at 00:32 h (s=01:29), arose at 09:47 h (s=01:47) and obtained 7.1 h (s=1.2) of sleep. Mixed model analyses revealed that on nights prior to training days, bedtimes and get-up times were significantly earlier (p<0.001), time spent in bed was significantly shorter (p<0.001) and the amount of sleep obtained was significantly less (p<0.001), than on nights prior to rest days. These results indicate that early-morning training sessions severely restrict the amount of sleep obtained by elite athletes. Given that chronic sleep restriction of <6 h per night can impair psychological and physiological functioning, it is possible that early-morning schedules actually limit the effectiveness of training.

Is it wiser to train in the afternoon or the early evening to sleep better? the role of chronotype in young adolescent athletes.

Type of study: rct

Number of citations: 8

Year: 2023

Authors: O. Saidi, P. Peyrel, Giovanna C. Del Sordo, B. Gabriel, F. Maso, É. Doré, P. Duché

Journal: Sleep

Journal ranking: Q1

Key takeaways: Afternoon high-intensity exercise improves sleep quality and next-day wellness in adolescent athletes, especially those with an early chronotype, compared to evening exercise.

Abstract: STUDY OBJECTIVES To examine the effect of the timing of high-intensity exercise (afternoon vs. evening) on adolescent athletes' bedtime psychological state, sleep quality, sleep staging, and next-day wellness/sleepiness according to chronotype. METHODS Forty-two young athletes (morning type: n =12, intermediate type: n =14; evening type: n=16) completed a randomized crossover study under free-living conditions. The counterbalanced sessions include: (AEX) afternoon (1:00 - 3:00 pm) and (EEX) evening (5:30 - 7:30 pm) high-intensity exercise. Sessions were conducted over three days each and were separated by a 1-week washout period. The time in bed was fixed (10:30 pm - 7:30 am). Sleep was assessed through ambulatory polysomnography. RESULTS The effect of high-intensity exercise on sleep differs significantly depending on the time of exercise with lower sleep efficiency: SE (-1.50%, p<0.01), and higher SOL (+4.60min, p=<0.01), during EEX vs. AEX. Contrary to the previous view, we discovered differences in the mediated response based on the chronotype of young athletes. These differences were observable in the psychological state at bedtime, objective sleep, and the next day's self-reported wellness. Whereas the sleep of participants with a late chronotype remains stable regardless of the time of exercise, those with early chronotype experience higher mood disturbances and clinically significant sleep disruptions following evening high-intensity exercise. CONCLUSIONS Exercise timing and chronotype affect the psychological state at bedtime and objective sleep in adolescent athletes. This also alters next morning signs of pre-fatigue and wellness which suggest that the consideration of both features is important to adolescent athletes' recovery.

The influence of training load and schedule on youth athletes' sleep.

Type of study: non-rct observational study

Number of citations: 0

Year: 2025

Authors: Tanisha Tate, Spencer S. H. Roberts, L. Main, Lyndell Bruce

Journal: Journal of sleep research

Journal ranking: Q1

Key takeaways: Late-night training sessions and higher daily training duration negatively impact sleep quality and efficiency in youth athletes.

Abstract: Sleep is important for youth athletes, supporting sport-related recovery and performance, as well as growth and development. Sleep may be influenced by training factors; therefore, this study aimed to characterise youth athletes' sleep, and examine associations between training load, schedule and frequency, and sleep. Twenty-six youth basketballers (age: 14.22 ± 0.74 years, 13 male, 13 female) from a high-performance sporting school were monitored for a period of 8 weeks. Sleep measures (via actigraphy and sleep diaries) were collected alongside training diaries (recording time, duration and perceived exertion). Youth athletes who finished training after 20:30 hours had significantly less total sleep time than when training finished before 20:30 hours. Higher daily total training duration was associated with decreased total sleep time. There is a potential contradiction with findings related to the number of sessions per day, as participants who completed two training sessions in a day had more sleep than those who completed one session per day; but this was not observed for athletes with three sessions per day. Participants had large intra-individual variations (mean intra-individual standard deviation) in bedtime (1.06 hr) and sleep time (0.84 hr). In conclusion: (1) late night training sessions appear to reduce total sleep time and should be avoided in youth athletes; (2) total daily training duration had a greater negative effect on sleep than session frequency; and (3) participants' large intra-individual variation in bedtime may reduce sleep quality and efficiency.

Sleep quantity and quality in elite youth soccer players: A pilot study

Type of study: non-rct experimental

Number of citations: 69

Year: 2014

Authors: E. Robey, B. Dawson, S. Halson, W. Gregson, C. Goodman, P. Eastwood

Journal: European Journal of Sport Science

Journal ranking: Q1

Key takeaways: Early evening high-intensity training had no impact on sleep quality and quantity in elite youth soccer players, and cold water immersion post-training had no effect on sleep.

Abstract: This study examined the effect of early evening high-intensity training on the sleep of elite male youth soccer players (n = 12) using wrist actigraphy. High-intensity training (TRAIN) nights were compared with a home environment (HOME) condition, created by averaging sleep variables on the night before and after TRAIN nights. Additionally, after TRAIN athletes alternately used cold water immersion (TRAIN+CWI) or none, to assess whether cold water immersion (CWI) had any impact on sleep quality and quantity. Ratings of perceived exertion, fatigue and recovery were recorded after training. Actigraphy sleep measures were bedtime, wake time, sleep duration, sleep onset latency, sleep efficiency and wake after sleep onset. Self-rated scores of sleepiness at bedtime and wake, plus overall sleep quality were also recorded. Only fatigue ratings were higher in TRAIN compared to TRAIN+CWI at bedtime, there were no other differences in training data. Both TRAIN and TRAIN+CWI conditions had significant later (07:45 ± 1:09 h p < 0.01 and 07:34 ± 1:20 h p = 0.01) wake times than HOME (06:44 ± 0:41 h). The TRAIN condition had a significantly higher (7 ± 2; p < 0.01) rating of sleepiness at bedtime compared to HOME (6 ± 1), but no further differences were found in any of the sleep (actigraphy and self-reported) measures. Across all conditions, time spent asleep was ∼7:30 (±0:52) h:min and sleep efficiency was ∼89% (±6.1). In conclusion, early evening high-intensity training had no impact on subsequent sleep quality and quantity, nor was there any effect on sleep after performing CWI post-training.

The Impact of Early Morning Training Sessions on Total Sleep Time in Collegiate Athletes.

Type of study: non-rct experimental

Number of citations: 2

Year: 2022

Authors: Brandon R. Merfeld, A. Mancosky, J. Luedke, Shalynn Griesmer, J. Erickson, Victoria Carvalho, Andrew R. Jagim

Journal: International journal of exercise science

Journal ranking: Q2

Key takeaways: Early morning training sessions significantly reduce total sleep time in college athletes, potentially impacting recovery and performance.

Abstract: Early morning training sessions may affect sleep quantity in athletes. The purpose of this study is to examine differences in total sleep time of collegiate athletes on nights prior to early morning training sessions relative to non-training nights. Wristwatch monitors equipped with photoplethysmography and accelerometer technology were worn by 18 NCAA Division III collegiate athletes (Age: 20.1 ± 1.6 years, Height: 1.81 ± 0.02 m, Body Mass: 91.2 ± 6.5 kg, Body Fat %: 20.8 ± 1.6%) during a two-week period of training to monitor total sleep times. Athletes recorded time in and out of bed using a sleep diary, anxiety levels due to having to wake up in the morning, and perceived recovery status (PRS) upon waking the next day. The data were divided into: nights before non-training days (NT) and Training days (TD). Data were analyzed using univariate analysis. All athletes obtained significantly less total sleep on nights before TD relative to NT (NT: 8:15 ± 1:03 vs. TD: 6:08 ± 0:59 hh:mm; p < 0.05). There was a positive relationship between total sleep time and recovery status (p < 0.01). Anxiety scores were inversely related to total sleep time (p < 0.01). Next-day recovery status was inversely related to anxiety scores (p < 0.001). College athletes obtained significantly less total sleep time on nights before early morning training sessions (< 0700) during the off-season, regardless of sex and sport. Coaches should consider later training sessions or promote optimal sleep quantity in order to minimize the risks associated to early morning training sessions.

The effect of night‐time exercise on sleep architecture among well‐trained male endurance runners

Type of study: rct

Number of citations: 21

Year: 2019

Authors: Anis Aloulou, F. Duforez, F. Bieuzen, M. Nédélec

Journal: Journal of Sleep Research

Journal ranking: Q1

Key takeaways: Night-time high-intensity exercise alters sleep architecture in well-trained male endurance runners, increasing core body temperature and nocturnal heart rate.

Abstract: The aim of the present study was to investigate the effects of night‐time (21:00 hours) high‐intensity, intermittent exercise on sleep architecture among well‐trained athletes in a laboratory setting. In a randomized, counterbalanced order, 11 well‐trained male runners completed a simulated trail‐running exercise (TRAIL) on a motorized treadmill and a resting condition (REST; no exercise during the day). After each condition, nocturnal autonomic nervous system activity and core body temperature (CBT) were measured and sleep was analysed using polysomnography and actigraphy. Markers of muscle damage (maximal voluntary contraction [MVC], plasma creatine kinase concentration [CK] and perceived muscle soreness) were recorded before and immediately (POST), 24 hr (H24) and 48 hr (H48) after exercise. TRAIL induced a high level of fatigue and mild exercise‐induced muscle damage, as determined by a reduction in MVC (−9.4%, p < .01, d = −1.36) and increases in [CK] (+176.0%, p < .01, d = 1.49) and perceived muscle soreness (+4.5 UA, p < .01, d = 2.17) compared with REST at H24. A trend for increased non‐rapid eye movement (+4.2%; p = .10; d = 0.86) and reduced rapid eye movement (−4.4%; p = .07; d = −0.87) during sleep was observed for TRAIL compared with the REST condition. Moreover, compared with REST, TRAIL significantly increased CBT and nocturnal HR during the first part of the night. In conclusion, sleep architecture was modified after night‐time, high‐intensity exercise among well‐trained runners.

The impact of training schedules on the sleep and fatigue of elite athletes

Type of study: non-rct observational study

Number of citations: 253

Year: 2014

Authors: C. Sargent, M. Lastella, S. Halson, G. Roach

Journal: Chronobiology International

Journal ranking: Q2

Key takeaways: Elite athletes' sleep duration is affected by their training schedule, with early morning starts reducing sleep and increasing pre-training fatigue levels.

Abstract: In any sport, successful performance requires a planned approach to training and recovery. While sleep is recognized as an essential component of this approach, the amount and quality of sleep routinely obtained by elite athletes has not been systematically evaluated. Data were collected from 70 nationally ranked athletes from seven different sports. Athletes wore wrist activity monitors and completed self-report sleep/training diaries for 2 weeks during normal training. The athletes also recorded their fatigue level prior to each training session using a 7-point scale. On average, the athletes spent 08:18 ± 01:12 h in bed, fell asleep at 23:06 ± 01:12 h, woke at 6:48 ± 01:30 h and obtained 06:30 ± 01:24 h of sleep per night. There was a marked difference in the athletes’ sleep/wake behaviour on training days and rest days. Linear mixed model analyses revealed that on nights prior to training days, time spent in bed was significantly shorter (p = 0.001), sleep onset and offset times were significantly earlier (p < 0.001) and the amount of sleep obtained was significantly less (p = 0.001), than on nights prior to rest days. Moreover, there was a significant effect of sleep duration on pre-training fatigue levels (p ≤ 0.01). Specifically, shorter sleep durations were associated with higher levels of pre-training fatigue. Taken together, these findings suggest that the amount of sleep an elite athlete obtains is dictated by their training schedule. In particular, early morning starts reduce sleep duration and increase pre-training fatigue levels. When designing schedules, coaches should be aware of the implications of the timing of training sessions for sleep and fatigue. In cases where early morning starts are unavoidable, countermeasures for minimizing sleep loss – such as strategic napping during the day and correct sleep hygiene practices at night – should be considered.

Moderate-intensity exercise performed in the evening does not impair sleep in healthy males

Type of study: rct

Number of citations: 36

Year: 2019

Authors: Dean J. Miller, C. Sargent, G. Roach, A. Scanlan, G. Vincent, M. Lastella

Journal: European Journal of Sport Science

Journal ranking: Q1

Key takeaways: Evening moderate-intensity aerobic or resistance exercise does not impair sleep in healthy young males when completed 90 minutes before bedtime.

Abstract: Abstract The aim of this study was to examine the effect of single bouts of moderate-intensity aerobic exercise and moderate-intensity resistance exercise performed in the evening on the sleep of healthy young males. The study employed a repeated-measures, counterbalanced, crossover design with three conditions (control, evening aerobic exercise, evening resistance exercise). Twelve male participants (mean ± SD; age: 21.9 ± 2.7 yr) attended the laboratory on three occasions separated by one day between each visit. Between 20:45 h and 21:30 h, participants completed either no exercise, 30 min of aerobic exercise at 75%HRmax, or 30 min of resistance exercise corresponding to 75% of 10-repetition maximum. A 9-h sleep opportunity was provided between 23:00 h and 08:00 h. Core body temperature was measured using ingestible temperature capsules and sleep was measured using polysomnography. Core body temperature was higher during the aerobic exercise and resistance exercise compared to control (p = 0.001). There was no difference in core body temperature at bedtime between the conditions. Sleep onset latency, total sleep time, slow-wave sleep duration, REM sleep duration, wake after sleep onset and sleep efficiency were similar in each condition (p > 0.05). Single bouts of moderate-intensity aerobic exercise or moderate-intensity resistance exercise performed in the evening did not impact subsequent night-time sleep. Core body temperature increased during both forms of exercise, but returned to pre-exercise levels in the 90 min prior to bedtime. Healthy young males can engage in a single bout of moderate-intensity aerobic exercise or moderate-intensity resistance exercise ceasing 90 min before bed without compromising their subsequent sleep.

Effects of a 2-Week High-Intensity Training Camp on Sleep Activity of Professional Rugby League Athletes.

Type of study: non-rct experimental

Number of citations: 65

Year: 2017

Authors: H. Thornton, Grant M. Duthie, N. Pitchford, J. Delaney, Dean T Benton, B. Dascombe

Journal: International journal of sports physiology and performance

Journal ranking: Q1

Key takeaways: A 2-week high-intensity training camp may compromise sleep quality and quantity for professional rugby league players, but daytime naps may be beneficial without negatively impacting nighttime sleep.

Abstract: PURPOSE To investigate the effects of a training camp on the sleep characteristics of professional rugby league players compared with a home period. METHODS During a 7-d home and 13-d camp period, time in bed (TIB), total sleep time (TST), sleep efficiency (SE), and wake after sleep onset were measured using wristwatch actigraphy. Subjective wellness and training loads (TL) were also collected. Differences in sleep and TL between the 2 periods and the effect of daytime naps on nighttime sleep were examined using linear mixed models. Pearson correlations assessed the relationship of changes in TL on individuals' TST. RESULTS During the training camp, TST (-85 min), TIB (-53 min), and SE (-8%) were reduced compared with home. Those who undertook daytime naps showed increased TIB (+33 min), TST (+30 min), and SE (+0.9%). Increases in daily total distance and training duration above individual baseline means during the training camp shared moderate (r = -.31) and trivial (r = -.04) negative relationships with TST. CONCLUSIONS Sleep quality and quantity may be compromised during training camps; however, daytime naps may be beneficial for athletes due to their known benefits, without being detrimental to nighttime sleep.

Effects of training and competition on the sleep of elite athletes: a systematic review and meta-analysis

Type of study: meta-analysis

Number of citations: 141

Year: 2018

Authors: Spencer S. H. Roberts, W. Teo, S. Warmington

Journal: British Journal of Sports Medicine

Journal ranking: Q1

Key takeaways: Elite athletes often struggle to meet sleep recommendations during training and competition, with factors like early morning training, increased training load, and travel negatively impacting their sleep quality.

Abstract: Objectives To characterise the sleep of elite athletes and to identify factors associated with training and competition that negatively affect sleep. Design Prognosis systematic review. Data sources Three databases (PubMed, SCOPUS and SPORTDiscus) were searched from inception to 26 February 2018. Eligibility criteria for selecting studies Included studies objectively reported total sleep time (TST) and/or sleep efficiency (SE) in elite athletes. Studies were required to be observational or to include an observational trial. Results Fifty-four studies were included. During training, many studies reported athletes were unable to achieve TST (n=23/41) and/or SE (n=16/37) recommendations. On the night of competition, most studies reported athletes were unable to achieve TST (n=14/18) and/or SE (n=10/16) recommendations. TST was shorter (60 min) the night of competition compared with previous nights. SE was lower (1%) the night of competition compared with the previous night. TST was shorter the night of night competition (start ≥18:00; 80 min) and day competition (20 min) compared with the previous night. SE was lower (3%–4%) the night of night competition but unchanged the night of day competition compared with previous nights. Early morning training (start <07:00), increases in training load (>25%), late night/early morning travel departure times, eastward air travel and altitude ascent impaired sleep. Conclusion Athletes were often unable to achieve sleep recommendations during training or competition periods. Sleep was impaired the night of competition compared with previous nights. Early morning training, increases in training load, travel departure times, jet lag and altitude can impair athletes’ sleep. PROSPERO registration number CRD42017074367.

High-intensity exercise in the evening does not disrupt sleep in endurance runners

Type of study: rct

Number of citations: 27

Year: 2019

Authors: Craig Thomas, H. Jones, Craig M. Whitworth-Turner, J. Louis

Journal: European Journal of Applied Physiology

Journal ranking: Q1

Key takeaways: High-intensity exercise in the early evening does not disrupt and may even improve nocturnal sleep in endurance-trained runners, with both high-intensity and low-intensity exercise promoting similar sleep behavior.

Abstract: To investigate the effect of early evening exercise training at different intensities on nocturnal sleep and cardiac autonomic activity in endurance-trained runners.Eight runners completed three experimental trials in a randomised, counterbalanced order. In the early evening (end of exercise 3.5 h before bedtime), participants performed either: (i) a 1 h high-intensity interval running session (HIGH, 6 × 5 min at 90% VO2peak interspersed with 5 min recovery); (ii) a 1 h low-intensity running session (LOW, 60 min at 45% VO2peak) or (iii) no exercise (CON). Subsequent nocturnal sleep was assessed using polysomnography, wristwatch actigraphy, and subjective sleep quality. A two-lead electrocardiogram recorded nocturnal cardiac autonomic activity.Total sleep time increased after HIGH (477.4 ± 17.7 min, p = 0.022) and LOW (479.6 ± 15.6 min, p = 0.006) compared with CON (462.9 ± 19.0 min). Time awake was lower after HIGH (31.8 ± 18.5 min, p = 0.047) and LOW (30.4 ± 15.7 min, p = 0.008) compared with CON (46.6 ± 20.0 min). There were no differences between conditions for actigraphy and subjective sleep quality (p > 0.05). Nocturnal heart rate variability was not different between conditions, but average nocturnal heart rate increased after HIGH (50 ± 5 beats min-1) compared with LOW (47 ± 5 beats min-1, p = 0.02) and CON (47 ± 5 beats min-1, p = 0.028).When performed in the early evening, high-intensity exercise does not disrupt and may even improve subsequent nocturnal sleep in endurance-trained runners, despite increased cardiac autonomic activity. Additionally, low-intensity exercise induced positive changes in sleep behaviour that are comparable to those obtained following high-intensity exercise.

Sleep/wake behaviour of competitive adolescent athletes in New Zealand: insight into the impact of early morning training.

Type of study: non-rct observational study

Number of citations: 7

Year: 2020

Authors: T. Steenekamp, J. Zaslona, P. Gander, D. Rowlands, T. Leigh Signal

Journal: Sleep medicine

Journal ranking: Q1

Key takeaways: Early morning training in adolescent athletes leads to shorter sleep durations, with bedtime remaining constant, reducing sleep duration below age recommended durations.

Physical exercise performed before bedtime improves the sleep pattern of healthy young good sleepers.

Type of study: non-rct experimental

Number of citations: 100

Year: 2012

Authors: Noler Heyden Flausino, Juliana Martuscelli da Silva Prado, Sandra Souza de Queiroz, S. Tufik, M. D. de Mello

Journal: Psychophysiology

Journal ranking: Q1

Key takeaways: Exercise before bedtime improves sleep efficiency, REM sleep latency, and reduces stage 1 sleep and wake after sleep onset in healthy young good sleepers without impairing sleep quality.

Abstract: To investigate the influence of different intensities and durations of exercise before bedtime on the sleep pattern and core body temperature of individuals considered good sleepers, we selected 17 healthy males and all underwent 5 nonconsecutive days of study. Measurements of polysomnographic parameters and core body temperature were taken at baseline and after each experimental protocol, performed at night. We found increased sleep efficiency (p = .016) among all protocols compared with baseline data and increase in REM sleep latency (p = .047) between two experiments; there was decrease in the percentage of stage 1 sleep (p = .046) and wake after sleep onset (p = .003). Core body temperature did not change significantly during the nights following exercise. Exercise performed before sleep does not impair sleep quality; rather, its practice improves sleep in good sleepers who are nonathletes, and may be considered to improve sleep pattern.

High self-perceived exercise exertion before bedtime is associated with greater objectively assessed sleep efficiency.

Type of study: non-rct observational study

Number of citations: 65

Year: 2014

Authors: S. Brand, N. Kalak, M. Gerber, R. Kirov, U. Pühse, E. Holsboer-trachsler

Journal: Sleep medicine

Journal ranking: Q1

Key takeaways: High self-perceived exertion before bedtime is associated with better sleep patterns and deeper sleep in healthy young adults.

The effect of caffeine on subsequent sleep: A systematic review and meta-analysis.

Type of study: meta-analysis

Number of citations: 70

Year: 2023

Authors: C. Gardiner, J. Weakley, L. Burke, G. Roach, C. Sargent, N. Maniar, A. Townshend, S. Halson

Journal: Sleep medicine reviews

Journal ranking: Q1

Key takeaways: Caffeine consumption should be limited to 8.8 hours before bedtime to avoid reducing total sleep time and 7% sleep efficiency, and to avoid increasing light sleep duration and decreasing deep sleep duration.

The Effects of Napping on Wakefulness and Endurance Performance in Athletes: A Randomized Crossover Study

Type of study: rct

Number of citations: 2

Year: 2023

Authors: F. Willmer, Claire Reuter, S. Pramsohler, M. Faulhaber, Anja Burkhardt, N. Netzer

Journal: Life

Journal ranking: Q2

Key takeaways: Napping after light sleep deprivation does not significantly influence endurance performance in athletes, but it effectively increases wakefulness and vigilance, which can be beneficial for sports competitions.

Abstract: Background: Athletes often experience poor sleep quality due to stress, altitude exposure, travel across different time zones, and pre-competition nervousness. Coaches use daytime naps to counteract the negative effects of fragmented nighttime sleep. Napping before competitions has also been used to enhance performance in athletes without sleep problems, with mixed results in previous studies, particularly for endurance performance. Thus, we investigated the effects of napping after partial sleep deprivation (PSD) on endurance performance and wakefulness in athletes. Methods: We recruited 12 healthy and trained participants (seven female and five male) for a randomized crossover study design. The participants underwent two test sessions: a five-hour night of sleep without a nap (noNap) and a five-hour night of sleep with a 30-min nap opportunity (Nap30). Participants recorded their sleep-wake rhythm one week before and during the study using the Consensus Sleep Diary-Core and the Morningness–Eveningness Questionnaire to examine their circadian rhythm type. We quantified PSD and the nap with pupillography (pupil unrest index, PUI), a subjective level of sleepiness questionnaire (Karolinska Sleepiness Scale, KSS), and polysomnography. After each night, participants performed a maximal cycling ergometry test to determine time to exhaustion (TTE) and maximal oxygen uptake (VO 2max). Results: Participants had an average sleep duration of 7.2 ± 0.7 h and were identified as moderately morning types (n = 5), neither type (n = 5), and moderately evening types (n = 2). There was a significant difference in both sleepiness parameters between the two conditions, with the PUI (p = 0.015) and KSS (p ≤ 0.01) significantly decreased at 5 h and nap compared with only 5 h of sleep. The PUI (p ≤ 0.01) and KSS (p ≤ 0.01) decreased significantly from before to after the nap. However, there was no significant difference in physical exercise test results between the conditions for TTE (p = 0.367) or VO 2max (p = 0.308). Conclusions: Our results suggest that napping after light PSD does not significantly influence endurance performance. We conclude that aerobic performance is a multidimensional construct, and napping after PSD may not enhance it. However, napping is an effective method to increase wakefulness and vigilance, which can be beneficial for sports competitions.